Category / equine

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Frame Overo

When I first sat down to go through my photographs, I was hoping to have five or six good examples of the Frame Overo trait. I was pleasantly surprised to find so many mustangs with this particular pattern. Interestingly, I found Frame Overo mustangs principally at Sand Wash Basin and Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. It is entirely possible there are some Frame Overos at other management areas, but neither Karen nor I had photographed any of them. The Frame Overo is also unique to North America. This pinto pattern is common only in Spanish Colonial Horses or their descendants. However, the trait occasionally, but rarely. appears in European-derived horses such as Thoroughbreds, Ethiopian breeds, and miniature horses (Sponenberg, 2009).

Frame Overo horses that have white patches superimposed on a background of any base colour such as roan, bay, chestnut, palomino and so on. The white colour often begins as a patch on the neck or barrel and spreads horizontally. The back almost always remains solid coloured between the withers and tail. The white patches are irregularly edged and splashy (Bailey & Brooks, 2013) although some white markings are clean and crisp, similar to tobianos (Sponenberg, 2009). The markings usually do not have the lacy or frosted appearance of Sabino patterned horses (Kerson, 2015)

The tail is generally one colour and at least one leg is usually solid coloured although often all four legs are solid. If the legs are solid, they may have socks or stockings in a pattern one might find on a non-pinto horse. The markings on the head are often extensive, bonnet or apron-faces are common. Additionally, they may have a pigmented upper or lower lip, or ‘moustache’ (Sponenberg, 2009).

The genetics are simple, the Frame trait is autosomal dominant, which means a Frame foal must have one Frame parent. However, if both parents have the Frame gene, there is a 25% possibility the foal will be homozygous and have two Frame genes. This foal will not survive because a homozygous Frame is linked to another genetic defect which causes loss of peristalsis (the wave-like action that moves food through the intestines), or more rarely, an incomplete colon. (Bailey & Brooks,2013). More information and examples are located at the bottom of this page.
FF= Normal color
Ff-= Frame Overo
ff= Overo Lethal White

Perhaps one of the best-known Frame Overos is Picasso from the Sand Wash Basin. This handsome Bay horse is one of the most photographed mustangs and he has a Breyer Horse modelled after him. He is a Bay Frame Overo (and possibly carries other pinto traits). Many of his numerous offspring are Frame Overos including two know Lethal White foals. There will be more information on this genetic anomaly presented below.
Picasso
Picasso
This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo stallion.
Note the white markings on neck and barrel as well as the four solid coloured legs.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
The horse on the right is a Chestnut Frame Overo
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A small family band with a Sorrel Frame Overo Stallion and a Frame Overo foal. In the management ranges, we cannot be certain of a foal’s parentage. Identifying a foal’s dam is generally more reliable than the sire. However, mares have been known to steal foals from other mares. Additionally, fillies will leave their natal bands briefly, breed with another stallion, and return to their natal band to deliver and raise the foal within the band they were born. Without genetic testing, we cannot be certain.

Hoot, Juniper, and Pinyon (2014)
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A Chestnut Frame Overo. The pigmented lip is common and may appear on the upper lip, lower lip, or both as this mustang demonstrates.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
The Chestnut Frame Overo is unusual because the right hind leg is extensively marked with white. This may be an anomalous finding, or an indication there are other pinto genes present, possibly Sabino. The heavily white face and body markings are more characteristic of Frame Overos.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
This charmingly marked dark (liver) Chestnut Frame Overo mare is called ‘Crazy Horse’. The freckles on her face are also known as Belton Spots and similar to the spotting found in English Setter dogs. Many horses with Belton Spots on their facial markings, also show “ermine spots” on their legs.  From Sand Wash Basin.
Although not perfectly focused, this Bay Frame Overo has Belton spots on his blaze as well as ermine spots (black spots on socks that are usually found along the coronet band). The ermine spots can cause the hoof to darken and appear striped. From Sand Wash Basin
These two beautiful sparring stallions are from Sand Wash. Kiowa on the left (Bay) and Haze on the right (Sorrel). Haze is a minimally marked Frame Overo- can you find the tiny white mark on Haze?
This is Miss Fleck- she is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin: the first image is her as a foal, the second image as a young mare. She was born into Voodoo’s band a but later joined Picasso’s band (2013). Picasso has since lost his band but he has been doing well as a bachelor. Fleck gave birth to a Lethal White Foal.
Fleck: foal, right side
Fleck: left side
This is Kiowa from the near side (left) from Sand Wash Basin. He had just been in a fight and you can see lacerations on his hip and shoulder. There is also a significant scar on Kiowa’s left haunch just below the laceration. It is believed he tangled with either a mountain lion or a wound from fighting that became infected. It is also possible he ran into a fence along the border of Sand Wash Basin and neighbouring ranches.
This is Raindancer. A lovely Chestnut Frame Overo with blue eyes from Sand Wash Basin.
This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo mare from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado with a pigmented lip, flank markings and a small lower neck/shoulder marking.
Here is a lovely colt Named Van Gogh, he is one of Picasso’s many Frame Overo offspring from Sand Wash Basin.
This is Yatzee on the left and a grey stallion on the right from Sand Wash Basin. The grey is actually a Frame Overo – if you look closely at his neck, you’ll see the faint outline of the original white mark in the middle, just under his mane. He also has some white markings on his barrel. Some people refer to grey pinto as “ghost paints/pintos”. In the winter it is impossible to tell them apart from solid grey colour horses. A wet grey pinto in a summer coat is the easiest to recognise because you can see the underlying skin colour: pink under white markings and darker under the base colour
Another “Ghost- Frame Overo Grey from Sand Wash Basin. The horse on the left has several white Frame markings on his neck, barrel and just above his stifle. He also has the distinctive white apron face with the pigmented lip. The pink skin of the white marking is especially noticeable on this horse’s muzzle. If you see a horse with a pigmented lip, there is a good chance they are a pinto- often a Frame Overo. The middle horse is also a Frame Overo, this time black with four white stockings.  Four white stockings may indicate this mustang has other pinto genes.  The last horse is a Bay Frame Overo with a usual number of white leg markings. Generally, the leg markings do not rise above the knees in Frame Overos.
This family band has two Frame Overos from Sand Wash Basin. The foal, a chestnut beginning to grey-out, and the sorrel stallion. Again, notice the solid coloured legs which help distinguish Frame Overos from Tobiano pinto.
A handsome Grullo Frame Overo gelding from Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary Black Hills is a wonderful rescue organisation, please click on the link to find out more
A Black Frame Overo from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary
Bay Frame Overo with a stunning pattern from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary.
Two Black Frame Overos from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary. Note the tendency for Frame Overos to have solid colour on the spine from the withers to the dock.
Sugar, a Grulla Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
This stallion is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin. It is evident he is thin but these horses receive no care. Many of the horses are underweight from untreated injuries, dental issue, and other injuries or infections that go untreated. It is truly survival of the fittest and only the strongest survive to reproduce. He was a very fiesty stallion, sparring with the bachelors and band stallions.
A dark chestnut Frame Overo pinto from Sand Wash Basin with very little white on his belly (the rest is dried mud)- referred to as a minimal Frame Overo. This stallion is called Spyder.
A Minimal Dun Frame Overo pinto from Sand Wash Basin.
This beautiful grey colt is a minimally marked Frame Overo. All four legs are solid and there is no white mark on either side. According to Sponenberg (2013), this horse will sire horses with varying amounts of white. Becuase of the lethal white syndrome, any Frame Overo owner should test both horses prior to breeding to avoid the chance of a foal that will not survive. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A minimally marked Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin named Spyder.
A beautiful Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin named Lightning. He was believed to be over 35 years of age at his death. He is one of the stallions responsible for the Frame Overo trait becoming so prevalent at Sand Wash Basin. He lived all his years free running amongst the Colorado sage.
A minimally marked Bay Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin with very little white and four solid legs.
Another Minimal Frame Overo Chestnut. This is Mimi, she is a foal by Picasso and out of Mingo (2012). She has white socks but they are normal height one normally associates with solid coloured horses. The first is her right side, the second image, her left.
A lovely Palomino Frame Overo colt named Meteor. He has a lot of white on both hinds legs (the white goes up the front of the leg to the stifle) and this indicates there is probably another pinto gene such as Sabino or Tobiano, is present. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
Kokomo, a Bay stallion by Picasso and a minimally marked Chestnut Frame Overo mare walking in front. Although they are muddy, the mare has solid legs and Kokomo has both white legs marked with white including a thin strip almost reaching his chest. Although he is heavily marked with white, like his sire, they both have solid coloured backs. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A very Minimally Marked Frame Overo named caballero. The other side is also solid. However, there is a white spot on this stallion’s tail evident by the light colour at the end. The facial marking (apron and pigmented lip) are good indicators of a Frame Overo. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

Lethal White

The Frame Overo (Ff or Oo) trait is found on the equine chromosome #17 at the same locus (location on a chromosome) that controls EDNRB (Endothelin Receptor B) (Sponenberg, 20009). The change in the dinucleotide that occurs in Frame Overos changes an amino acid from isoleucine to lysine which disrupts the function of the EDNRB. In homozygous Frame Overo horses (Ff), the functional inability of Receptor Type B proteins (EDNRB) causes loss of gastric ganglia precursor cell migration and loss of melanocyte migration (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).The loss of function in EDNRB prevents the embryologic migration of:

  • Gastric ganglia precursor cells from migrating, which means a loss of enervation in the digestive tracts. No nerves ending exist in the colon of these horses and function is completely disrupted. Rarely the loss of EDNRB function results in an incomplete colon (ileocolonic aganglionosis). Foals with either gastric malformation die within a few days of birth and it cannot be surgically corrected.
  • Melanocyte migration means loss of pigment, resulting in white colouration.
In heterozygous horses, the presence of one “f” results in partial solid colour, but the digestive system is normal. In lethal white, the presence of two “ff” results in a pure white horse (no melanocyte migration) and a non-functional colon, or a blocked, atrophied, or dead-end colon. The loss of gastric enervation has a similar aetiology to Hirschsprung’s Disease in humans. Overo Lethal White Syndrome is found in Frame Overo horses as well as highly white calico overo, and frame blend overo (>94%) (Santschi, Vrotsos, Purdy & Mickelson, 2001)
Mingo X Picasso
©Nancy Roberts
©Nancy Roberts

Picasso X Fleck
 ©Danielle M. Williams
 ©Danielle M. Williams
 ©Danielle M. Williams

Here is the link for more information on the Lethal White Syndrome including a handy Punnett Square

References

Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.

Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder’s Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.

Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published

Santschi, E. M., Vrotsos, P. D., Purdy, A. K., & Mickelson, J. R. (2001). Incidence of the endothelin receptor B mutation that causes lethal white foal syndrome in white-patterned horses. Am J Vet Res, 62(1), 97-103.

Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.

***A special thanks to Heather Robson & Nancy Kerson for identification and inspiration, respectively

About the Author & Photographers

AUTHOR & PHOTOGRAPHER

Dr. Meredith Hudes-Lowder, DNP, WHNP-BC, MSN, BSN, RNC, BS Biology
Meredith received a Bachelor of Science Degree from Binghamton University with an emphasis in ethology, conservation, and genetics. She received a Bachelor of Science in Nursing also from Binghamton and a Masters of Nursing in Perinatal/Women’s Health from Stony Brook University. She has a Doctorate of Nursing Practice from Stony Brook University. Her doctoral thesis was a research study on cervical cancer screening intervals. She was invited to present her research findings at the podium for the Nurse Practitioners in Women’s Health Annual Conference in New Orleans, October 2016. She is a member of several professional organisations and was inducted into Sigma Theta Tau- the Nursing Honor Society in 2007. She works at a busy medical practice in Manhattan as a Nurse Practitioner, specializing in the climacteric & menopause. She teaches Women’s Health to graduate students at Pace University in the clinical setting. When she is not busy taking care of “hot” women, Meredith can be found at the dojo practising Kobudo and Karate, performing pro-bono research for mustang advocacy, learning Korean, or playing her Lyon & Healy concert harp.


PHOTOGRAPHER
Karen McLain: Painter, artist, photographer

Karen McLain is a third generation Arizona native. Growing up in Arizona, she developed a deep appreciation for the outdoors, and for the rural and ranching lifestyle. Karen graduated from Arizona State University with a B.A. in Studio Art. She went on to pursue more traditional and realistic styles, and to create a style of her own. A number of commissioned works are accepted from collectors. The rest of the time, Karen can be found drawing or painting en plein air. These landscapes and life studies of wild horses are then developed into larger works in her studio.

McLain states: ”Painting from life not only reveals natures beauty first hand, but it also challenges me to focus and see clearly the light, form, and wonderful color present.  Time spent in the saddle, and painting en Plein air, results in an outlook that McLain describes as “Drawn from life, and inspired by life”, which is reflected in her work. See Karen’s “studio tour” here

END OF FRAME OVERO Horses
by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Tobiano Paints

 THE TOBIANO PAINTS

Disclaimer: The mustang photographs on this blog post are presented without genetic testing; we do not know the actual chromosomal make-up of the mustangs. We rely solely upon the horse’s phenotype, or how they appear physically: coat colour, white markings, eye color, mane, and tail colour.

Mammalian Pigmentation: 

The colors found in mammalian hair, skin, irises, and some internal organs is produced by the pigment melanin. Melanin appears as colored granules in these pigmented cells and occurs in two forms, eumelanin, and phaeomelanin. Eumelanin is responsible for brown and black colour, and phaeomelanin is responsible for reds and yellows (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).
Black tobiano (muddy) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The absence of melanin will appear as white in mammals. The lack of color typically associated with Paint Horses is caused by the inability of these cells to produce the base colors from birth. The color loss results in large patches of white against a base coat of any colour (bay, chestnut, roan, grey, dun, champagne, silver dapple, palomino, brown, black, etc). Additionally, the white colour has pink skin beneath. 

Assorted tobiano horses (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

There are other forms of white colouration in equines; for example gray or roan. Grey horse color is caused by the failure of melanocytes over time, so the hair starts normally pigmented but loses the ability to maintain the pigment so the horse eventually turns white(Sponenberg, 2009). Roan horses are roan from birth although they are often not recognizable until after the foal coat has shed. Roan horses typically retain the base color on their head, legs, mane, and tail. The skin beneath grey and roan horses is dark and these colors are not actual colours, but rather modifiers that act upon a base coat (Gower, 2016). 

Black tobiano demonstrating the “shield” (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography ™© Karen McLain 
A tobiano horse may also be roan, appaloosa, sabinos, overo, or any other pattern as the tobiano pattern is not a mutually exclusive coat patterns.
Bay Roan tobiano   (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Roan tobiano foal, palomino tobiano mare  (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Equine chromosomes
The genes for four white coat patterns: roan (RN), sabinos (SB1), dominant white (W), and tobianos (TO) are located on the KIT gene.The KIT gene is responsible for sending instructions through cells that allow the cell to make specific proteins. The KIT proteins are found on the cell membrane where another protein called a “stem cell factor” binds to the KIT protein. When bound together, they activate the KIT protein, which in turn, activates other proteins within the cell. These proteins serve a variety of functions in mammalian cells such as growth, development, migration, and production of certain cell types such as interstitial gastrointestinal cells and melanocytes (Haase, Jude, Brooks, & Leeb, 2008).
Equine Chromosome #3
The KIT gene is located on the fourth chromosome at the 12 position and located very close is the ECA3 gene. The ECA3, or the third equine chromosome is the location of the chromosomal mutation responsible for tobianos. Although the KIT gene remains normal in these horses, the third chromosome has an area in the gene that has flipped. Approximately one-third the length of the chromosome is an area that is an exact mirror image in tobianos horses. Because the chromosomal inversion is adjacent to the KIT gene, it affects the KIT protein synthesis, and the cells cannot produce melanocytes- so the horse has areas of white. The test for tobianos examines the chromosome and looks for a ‘break’ (telomeric or centromeric) at the positions 13 and 21 on the third chromosome– this serves as an indication they separated and inverted during replication- the horse is genetically a tobianos (Bailey & Brooks, 2009).
The gene for tobiano horses is autosomal dominant. This means to be tobiano, a foal must have at least one tobiano parent, but they also may have two tobiano parents. If one parent is a tobiano, it does not matter what colour or pattern the other parent appears; the foal will be tobiano. If a horse matches the criteria for a tobiano, it is likely the horse has the genetic background of a tobiano, although there may be some mixing of other patterns (Gower, 2016). The patterns are not inherited exactly, however, the proportion of white to colour is inherited. In other words a horse with a lot of white will have offspring with a lot of white but this depends upon the other parent. Interestingly, the study by Woolf (1990) discovered male horses and those with chestnut coats have more white than female or bay horses. The researcher also noted that the inheritance of white leg markings and facial markings is multifactorial; there are many genes involved in the appearance of white markings (Woolf, 1990).

History:

Bay tobiano mare  (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The Tobiano paint pattern was named for General Tobías from Brazil. The General brought the paint horses to Argentina in the mid-1800’s. Before their arrival, tobiano horses were rare and had been grouped with other spotted-type horses. After General Tobías’ arrival, they were renamed after the general and placed into a unique paint coat classification(Kerson, 2015; Sponenberg, 2009)
Tobiano Characteristics:
Bay tobiano mare (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The tobiano is defined by several coat characteristics. As with all horses, unless genetically tested, we evaluate the coat pattern by the phenotype or the horses’ physical appearance. As a general rule, tobiano horses have the following characteristics (there are always exceptions to these rules):

  1. White cross the spine somewhere between the ears and the tail (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
  2. The body white appears to travel down in a vertical fashion (Gower, 2016)
  3. The edges of the white areas tend to be crisp and well-defined (Sponenberg, 2009)
  4. Legs are white and the edge of the socks/stockings is irregular (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
  5. Most tobiano have dark eyes although some tobiano horses have blue eyes  (Sponenberg, 2009)
  6.  Most tobianos have white areas within the mane and tail, this gives the appearance of a bicoloured tail, a trait usually seen only in tobiano horses. (Sponenberg, 2009)
  7. The predominantly solid coloured heads of tobianos are generally conservatively marked: thin blazes, simple stars (Sponenberg, 2009)

 Some tobianos have very little white

Black tobiano (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Minimally marked black tobiano stallion -note the bicoloured tail (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Black tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Some tobiano horses have very little base colour but they tend retain normally coloured heads even when extensively white.
Minimally marked light bay chestnut tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Light bay tobiano (note the minimal blaze) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Extensively white black marked tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Some tobiano horses have marks within the white areas and there may be some bleeding of colour between the base colour and the white areas. The smaller spots in the white areas are called ink spots, bear tracks, cat’s paws. The areas of darker colour encroaching on the white areas are referred to as halos. There may also be some roaning at the edge of colour and white. This is a historical link between these markings and homozygosity. No genetic link has been found, however anecdotally, homozygous horses often present with these marking whilst heterozygous generally do not show these markings. 

Cat’s paws & halo effect (San Wash Basin, Colorado) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Bay tobiano with the ‘halo’ effect (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
References
Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2009). Method for screening for a tobiano coat color genotype  #USPatent 8101354 B2.
Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.
Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder’s Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.
Haase, B., Jude, R., Brooks, S. A., & Leeb, T. (2008). An equine chromosome 3 inversion is associated with the tobiano spotting pattern in German horse breeds. 
Animal Genetics, 39(3), 306-309. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2008.01715.x
Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published
Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.
Woolf, C. M. (1990). Multifactorial inheritance of common white markings in the Arabian horse. J Hered, 81(4), 250-256.

A special thanks to Nancy Kerson for her brilliant book “What Color is that? A quick guide to horse color identification” and to the Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. A worth sanctuary for wild horses.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

GETTING READY for the MUSTANG WALKABOUT 2016

Today I took out and examined my equipment (happy dance)…

Camera: I bring a Canon 7D Mark ii and a back-up Canon Rebel T3ii. The lenses fit both. I usually have them professionally cleaned over the winter so they are ready for the spring, summer, and autumn photography trips.

Lenses: I use a 100-400mm image stabilised Canon lens most of the time. The Rebel has a 18-135 mm for panoramic vistas. I carry both in the field to make sure my lenses overlap. I also have a 18-55 mm but that won’t cover the area from 55-100 mm so I bring the 18-135 mm. This way I have a full range of lens choice that overlap. A lot of camera stores sell refurbished used lenses and this is a great way to get a lens for a reduced price.  You must have a lens with a minimum distance of 300 mm because you cannot approach the horses closer than 100 feet in most management areas so a long lens is crucial.

Memory Cards: I buy new cards every year. The most important thing is the speed and the size. Get a size that you won’t have to swap cards out frequently, but make sure to have extras. I find the highest speeds to be the best for mustang photography. For the SD Cards, go for 90-95mb/sec read/write and Class 3. Compact Flash Cards come in 120mb/s for the high speed setting. You want to be able to use the camera’s rapid fire capability, so you’ll want the card to match the speed of the camera. I also recommend many smaller sized cards versus one huge card. I usually carry 64MB, 32MB and few 16MB.

If something spectacular happens (and it often does), those photos may turn out to be some of your best work, take the card out of the camera and put it in a safe place when the action is over. The precious photos will be safe and you won’t have to deal with a card failure (rare, but it happens). I kept my first photos of Picasso on a CF Card and carried all the way home after backing it up multiple times.  Another trick- I keep empty cards in my right pocket, and used cards in my left. They are numbered 1,2,3 etc and this way I instantly know what cards are used and which are empty.

Batteries: I carry four. Two are in the battery-grip for the camera all the time and so far, I haven’t had to replace the double battery even after 12 hours of shooting. But I always carry four freshly charged batteries in the field. The back-up camera has a single battery and I carry a spare. We charge them using car charger adaptors or we also use a PowerVerter or Power Inverter which offers plugs and uses the car lighter for the power source. We charge batteries while we drive to save time.

Monopod/Tripod: There are wonderful to stabilise your camera. At places like the waterhole, there is a lot of action going on all the time. Karen usually has one leg of her tripod extended and she will drop the other two if it looks like we will be stationary for a while. I usually carry the tripod with all three legs extended.

External Hard Drives: I carry a 2TB hard drive and a ColorSpace UDMA2 and I upload every night. I don’t even look at the photos until they are backed-up on two external hard drives and then, sparingly. Once I am home, they get backed up via the Cloud and the hard drive goes into the safe. Only then do I go through all the photos. The nice part about the ColorSpace is functions as a hard drive AND as a file viewer with a nice sized LCD screen.

Computer/ Laptop: I bring my Macbook into the field. It is very light and has a nice sized screen. I opted for the Macbook over the Macbook-Air because the Macbook run Photoshop- always useful to have to examine photos if necessary or after they are backed-up.

Binoculars: As an avid bird watcher, I have a good sturdy pair. You’ll need them for the bands in the distance.  I have a simple pair of 8×42 Bushnell.

Sundries:

  • Snake bite kit, yes there are snakes out on the range. So far, no one has been bitten, just watch where you put your feet at all times. The Prairie Rattlesnake is generally docile but even the shyest snake will bite if it is stepped on. Some people wear snake-gaiters and I carry a pair.
  • Sunscreen- tons of the stuff
  • Cooling evaporative towel (Frog Tog)
  • Lens cleaning kits
  • Storm covers- some of the best photos are just before a storm but protect your camera at all times.
  • Food/water/cellphone with car charger

*Always let some know where you are, how long you plan to be there and when you expect to return.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Mustang Management Contraceptive Primer

MUSTANG MANAGEMENT CONTRACEPTIVE PRIMER 

This is not a debate on which is the best method of controlling wild horse numbers. These are simply the facts. It is clear science is far from perfect but research and observation can serve to give us an idea, a general sense of something which can compel us to look for more answers and continue research, preferably as humanely and as compassionately as possible. This is also not a debate as to whether mustangs should be classified as a native species in North America, returned native species, indigenous or invasive. They are here, with limited resources, and they are our responsibility.

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Porcine Zona Pellucida (PZP):  The compound PZP, which is short for Porcina Zona Pellucida, is derived from sow ovaries. When the pigs are slaughtered for the meat industry, the excess tissue not used for the food industry is either discarded or utilized for non-consumption purposes. Some tissue used for research and others for the preparation of drugs. Heparin is a potent anticoagulant given to almost every patient who has had surgery followed by an overnight stay in the hospital, to prevent the formation of blood clots. Heparin is derived from pig intestines. Insulin, given to diabetics, was originally made from cow, pig, and even whale pancreases. Currently there are still some available that contain animal products, although there are genetically modified human insulins and insulin analogs that are not animal based (http://iddt.org/about/gm-vs-animal-insulin).


Pesticide Classification: The FDA classifies PZP as a pesticide simply because they do not have a category for contraception. Pesticides control the numbers of a populations be it insect or mammal, and because they can be quite destructive, pesticides are deemed as negative chemical compounds. PZPdoes not have any direct effect on any of the plants or animals other than the inoculated mares.

How it works: PZP works by stimulating the immune system of a mare to produce antibodies which migrate through the horse’s body to an oocyte (egg). When the mare ovulates, the antibodies immediately surround the egg, making it impenetrable to sperm. The egg cannot be fertilized and there is no foal. The reproductive behavior remains relatively normal, the mare goes into estrus and is covered by a stallion but there is no resulting offspring <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Barber200118(Barber, Lee, Steffens, Ard, & Fayrer-Hosken, 2001)181817Barber, M. R.Lee, S. M.Steffens, W. L.Ard, M.Fayrer-Hosken, R. A.Immunolocalization of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephantsTheriogenologyTheriogenology1705-17175582001May0093-691XWOS:000168957100010<Go to ISI>://WOS:00016895710001010.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3<![endif]–>(Barber, Lee, Steffens, Ard, & Fayrer-Hosken, 2001)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

Risks: PZP is not without risks. The currently long acting PZP-22 can last approximately 22 months. PZP is based on the immune system of the mares and this can cause variation in the efficacy and duration of the contraceptive effect. As in humans utilizing long term injectable contraception (Depo-Provera), the mare’s return to fertility is quite variable <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Kirkpatrick200924(Kirkpatrick et al., 2009)242417Kirkpatrick, J. F.Rowan, A.Lamberski, N.Wallace, R.Frank, K.Lyda, R.The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlifeJournal of Reproductive ImmunologyJournal of Reproductive Immunology151-157831-22009Dec0165-0378WOS:000273024800028<Go to ISI>://WOS:00027302480002810.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257<![endif]–>(Kirkpatrick et al., 2009)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>. The reason PZP is not offered to humans is because the efficacy rate is not high enough.

“For contraceptive treatment to be an effective management tool, it usually needs to be reversible (Kirkpatrick & Turner 1991). A long term study of feral horses showed that PZP was reversible even when females were treated for several years (Kirkpatrick & Turner 2002). However some females appeared not to return to full fertility after long-term PZP treatment and similar side effects were seen with GNRH treatments in deer (e.g. Miller et al. 2000a). Consequently, most wildlife contraceptives are reversible, or have minimal impact after prolonged use.”  (Gray & Cameron, 2010).

Prolonged use has demonstrated that some mares will never return to fertility. Kirkpatrick, Liu, Turner, Naugle, and Keiper (1992)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–> found that three factors determine the return to normal reproductive function: the amount of PZP administered, the number of antibodies produced by the mare, and ovarian dysfunction. Earlier studies also demonstrated damage to ovaries although the PZP preparation was crude in the earlier stages of development <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Kirkpatrick199226(Kirkpatrick et al., 1992)262617Kirkpatrick, J. F.Liu, I. M. K.Turner, J. W.Naugle, R.Keiper, R.LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS)Journal of Reproduction and FertilityJournal of Reproduction and Fertility437-4449421992Mar0022-4251WOS:A1992HR77000018<Go to ISI>://WOS:A1992HR77000018<![endif]–>(Kirkpatrick et al., 1992)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

Abscesses at the injection sites have been reported but these are temporary, and heal without complications.

PZP and Tuberculosis: Finally, there were some rumours floating around social media that PZP can cause tuberculosis. Although this may sound like science-fiction or the nefarious work of people against keeping the horses wild, there is some truth. The original method of getting PZP into the animals involved piggy-backing the molecule on a carrier molecule or adjuvant. Adjuvants are not biologically active but their presence can trigger an immune response. It may result in a false positive antibody response for tuberculosis. The animal doesn’t have the disease, and many human vaccines work this way by stimulating the body to form antibodies to something not biologically active.  The original choice for the adjuvant was a mycobacterium- the mycobacteria family are known to cause tuberculosis and many other diseases. Because the PZP was attached to an inactive mycobacterium, in some animals it cause a false-positive tuberculosis antibody response. They changedthe adjuvant for the preparation of PZP so now there is no mycobacterium involved. Additionally, horses cannot contract or transmit tuberculosis <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE  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endif]–>(Lyda, Hall, & Kirkpatrick, 2005)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

GONACON: This method works by injecting mares with a synthetic (man-made) chemical compound called GonaCon. This compound acts against a hormone called gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). In the reproductive cycle of mammals, GnRH is produced by the anterior pituitary gland. This gland controls reproduction by stimulating the release of the follicle stimulating hormone and the luteinizing hormone (and others). ConaCon works by stopping the production of GnRH and subsequently the luteinizing hormone and without LH, there is no ovulation, no corpus luteum, and therefore, no egg/offspring <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Speroff201230(Speroff & Fritz, 2012)30306Speroff, L.Fritz, M. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility 8th2012New Yok Lippincott Williams & Wilkins<![endif]–>(Speroff & Fritz, 2012)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>. Like PZP, GonaCon can result in prolonged infertility (Ransom, 2014). The tables below represent one study each- these data are only reflecting the results one study and may not have generalisability to the entire population. The general consensus amongst zoos and researchers is that PZP is 90% effective when administered correctly.

In a study by <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Ransom201429Jason I. Ransom et al. (2014)292917Ransom, Jason I.Powers, Jenny G.Garbe, Heidi M.Oehler Sr, Michael W.Nett, Terry M.Baker, Dan L.Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraceptionApplied Animal Behaviour ScienceApplied Animal Behaviour Science81-92157Equus caballusFertility controlGonadotropin releasing hormoneSocial behaviorWild horseWildlife contraception20148//0168-1591http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016815911400135Xhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002<![endif]–>Jason I. Ransom et al. (2014)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>, the researchers found there were fewer behavioural differences in mares treated with GonaCon, compared to those treated with PZP. They modeled their GonaCon study after the PZP study and found fewer alterations in the wild mare’s behavior. GonaCon is still a recent addition to the world of wildlife contraception and has potential as a potential management tool for equids. It shows promise but the long-term data is still unavailable.  


GonaCon can be given to males because the GnRH stimulates testosterone production in males. However, studies of stags treated with GonaCon resulted in antler deformity and other negative consequences. “In conclusion, the GnRH vaccination in male rusa deer resulted in the increase in GnRH antibody titer, which negatively correlated with blood testosterone. The decrease in blood testosterone might be involved in the lower semen quality and poor antler development” (Phraluk, O. et al, 2015). There is potential for use in stallions but we need more research in this area.


Because GonaCon a works systemically, not targeting the reproductive tract as specifically as PZP, the potential for side effects increases. The closer to the intended target a medication or treatment is administered, the more effective, the lower the dose, and adverse drugs reaction are substantially decreased. The Global Library of Women’s Health states: “In non-reproductive tissues, GnRH has been reported to modulate neuronal migration, visual processing, digestive tract function, and immune T cell chemotaxis. Studies in endometrial, ovarian, and prostate tumor cell lines have implicated GnRH in mediating cell growth, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis.” (http://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Gonadotropin-releasing%2520Hormone%2520(GnRH)%2520and%2520the%2520GnRH%2520Receptor%2520(GnRHR)/item/284)
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Table 1. (Represents data from one study)
Infertility over three-years with equine contraception (Kilian et al., 2006).
Infertility after one year
Infertility after two years
Infertility after three years
Spay- Vac PZP
100%
80%
80%
GonaCon
94%
60%
53%
Copper IUD
80%
29%*
14%*
*The assumption is the IUD’s had been expelled in the mare who became pregnant

Table 2. (Represents data from another study)

Foaling rates at three horse management areas after PZP treatment  (Ransom, J.,et al, 2011).
Foaling Rates
Type of contraception
Treated
Untreated
Little Book Cliffs
6.6%
60.1%
PZP in liquid form requires annual boosters
McCullough
31.7%
75%
PZP in pelleted form- designed to last two years
Pryor Mountain
17.7%
62.8%
PZP in liquid form requires annual boosters
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Any time we begin to tamper with Mother Nature- it places us at risk. Treating mares with immunocontraception and/or Gonacon can have negative consequences on the familial structures of a highly social animal. Treating mares with these two compounds can result in mare giving birth to foal during time of limited resources. A study determined that there are differences in parturition times for mare treated compared with mares that were not treated. Foals born during more normal times for wild horses have a higher survival rate. <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Ransom201331(J. I. Ransom, Hobbs, & Bruemmer, 2013)313117Ransom, J. I.Hobbs, N. T.Bruemmer, J.Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and ResourcesPlos OnePlos One812013Jan1932-6203WOS:000315211500043<Go to ISI>://WOS:000315211500043e5497210.1371/journal.pone.0054972<![endif]–>(J. I. Ransom, Hobbs, & Bruemmer, 2013)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.  

However, all negative consequences of injectable contraception pale in comparison to the disruption of the social structure during round-ups. Separation of mares from stallions and their offspring occurs during round-ups and culling. Family bands are broken up and the horses face the terrible loss of their freedom. A balance must be found and the benefits and the negative outcomes must be weighed. There is a chance a mare treated with the above methods, may never foal again- but that mare remains free. There is always the potential she may resume ovulation however, she is will not spend her life in a holding pen. A study by Turner, Liu, Flanagan, and Rutberg (2007) indicated one mare out of sixteen in the study, did not have a normal return to fertility. Is a chance of infertility worth the price of freedom?
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OVARECTOMY: This is removal of a mare’s ovaries. This method is irreversible, the mare will never breed again. Behaviorally, it reverts a mare to a non-breeding state. There is not a lot of data and/or research regarding this permanent method in the wild horse population which is why research proposals are being requested by government agencies The risks are the this surgical procedure are post-operative infection and possible abortion of a fetus if the mare is gravid at the time of the procedure.  Additionally there is the loss of that mare’s potential contribution to the genetic diversity of that herd management area.  This loss is not well defined and may vary based of the genetic variation in a herd management area. Mares should be monitored for three weeks post-operative (optimally), before being returned to the range to live out their lives. The upfront cost is high, but the end result is permanent. It has been proposed for mare over a certain age, selected by the currently proposed studies, as means to control the populations which would allow the mares to live free without foaling year after year (Speroff & Fritz, 2012, National Research Council, 2013).


CHEMICAL STERILIZATION/VASECTOMY/NEUTERING:  These methods, performed on stallions, are permanent means of limiting wild horse populations. In chemical sterilization, stallions have a solution injected into the testes which causes necrosis and eventual tissue death of the testes. It is painful and carries a high risk of infection but is very cost-effective (Zhanwei, 1989),  Orchiectomy (removal of testes: aka gelding/neutering) is another permanent method which removes the testes of a stallion. Like chemical sterilization, ‘gelding’ causes behavioral changes and the stallions become less aggressive, there is less fighting and they cannot reproduce. Vasectomy involves severing the vas deferens of a stallion so that the communication between the testes and the penis is removed. The sperm are not able to be passed through the urethra during copulation. Behavior remains the same because the testes are still present and producing testosterone. Infection rates are much lower in vasectomies, the procedure is less painful but it requires a delicate touch, it may not be 100% effective, and the horse must be anesthetized or sedated (Speroff & Fritz, 2012, National Research Council, 2013).

ROUND-UPS: This method involves gathering the horses by use of helicopters, men on horses, ATV, trucks, and bait trapping. The bait-trapping is the least likely to cause physical harm but none of these methods are without significant risks. Helicopter round-ups have the highest incidences of morbidity and mortality.  The horses are gathered, separated and either returned to the horse management area, or they are removed to a holding facility for potential adoption.

RESERVE DESIGN:  This method of mustang management has merit in a perfect world. The theory is to find a place for the horses to live. A place that has natural horse-predators (may prove to be difficult to find), natural barriers to prevent migration in/out of the area, and neighbours sympathetic to mustangs.  The area has to have sufficient food, water, shelter, and other necessities for survival year round. Funds for this preserve may be obtained through ‘eco-tourism’ and public education regarding the wild horses are included in this plan.  Reserve design is a wonderful idea but it does not have practical application. The land that would be needed is not available, at least not at this time, for the numbers necessary.  The monitoring of these herds and the management of these herds must be carried out as well and the necessary people to oversee each area. The goal of ‘reserve design’ is to be self-sufficient in which the wild horses achieve homoeostasis with regards to population growth. Because the predation is very low, and we cannot safely import predators, this will prove to be challenging. Incorporating natural predators to assist in controlling the wild horse population can have deleterious effects on the domestic population of horses and of livestock. Historically, once a predator begins to hunt within the domestic population, the end result usually has rather negative consequences for the predator.


SELF-REGULATION: This involves leaving the mustangs alone to establish population equilibrium without any interference. There is no scientific evidence that this methods works and history has shown us wild horses do not fare well with a hands-off approach. Unfortunately the resources the mustangs have within the management areas are limited and the horses will suffer in one way or another if left unmanaged. There are three factors that determine a population’s ability to grow. They are: available resources, predation, and disease. Many of the wild horses at Cold Creek starved to death or had to be humanely euthanized because resources became compromised.  The resources may be limited due to naturally occurring factors such as drought or fire, or they may face competition from livestock grazing on the same land. Regardless of the mechanism, reduced resources will cause competition, and result starvation or disease in the wild horse population. Occasionally a mountain lion will take a foal or an older/injured horse but cougars are not primary predators of the mustangs . Wolves generally do not live in the horse management areas with any regularity. Disease is a concern with any animal left in overcrowded situations. Chronic Wasting Disease is a disease that began in the mule deer population, and has spread to other cervids (herbivorous even-toed mammals in which the male carries antlers). The current deer populations are substantially larger than the available resources in the north-east United States, and this disease has now been identified in white-tailed deer of the Adirondack Mountains. Similar to Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), or Mad Cow Disease, this disease is affecting all cervids, not just the deer (Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance, 2016).  If the populations of wild horses were left alone, they would increase to the point of starvation and disease. It would only be a matter of time before a disease mutated in that population and spread to the domestic horse population with devastating consequences.

DECLARING THE MUSTANG “ENDANGERED”: This method is to first declare the mustang a ‘native wild species’ and then have it declared endangered- which may prove difficult. The mustang is the same species as domestic horses. They fall within the same genera: Equus and species: caballus. They have no genetic markers or any other characteristic that differentiate them from their domestic counterparts.  There has been proposed theories that they behave differently but this was not enough for the United States Fish and Wildlife to declare mustangs as a separate subspecies.  The wild horses are identical genetically, physiologically, and behaviorally to the horses in your paddock.  There are currently 40-50,000 presumably wild horses in captivity at BLM holding facilities. There are an estimated 20-40,000 living wild on horse management areas, and several thousand more domesticated mustangs living with people. These numbers alone are not sufficient for endangered species status, or even threatened species if USFW was willing to grant them subspecies status. 

Proponents of making mustangs endangered believe that once they achieve the endangered species status, the mustangs would be granted the ultimate protection. However, advocacy groups would no longer have a say in their conservation; they would be managed by Fish and Wildlife. The now ‘endangered’ mustangs may be moved to locations to protect their numbers and they may very well lose their freedom if they were to ever to gain protected status. Our descendants would not be able to see these ‘endangered mustangs’ living free; they would only see them in zoos and protected reserves.


The belief that mustangs are a separate species or a separate animal from domestic horses is the first hurdle to overcome with this method. However, that has proven to be impossible. They are not separate; they are the same species just as a miniature horse and a Clydesdale are the same species. They are horses that have returned to the wild and been wildly successful at surviving and reproducing.   

“Managing them to extinction” is a catch-phrase often used to describe the situation of the wild horses. Mustangs will never become extinct because they aren’t recognized as a separate sub-species of the modern horse. However, there is a very good chance our children and their descendants will never see a free roaming mustang, and that would be the greatest tragedy of all. Regardless of their origin, regardless of their heritage, the mustangs are our responsibility. We need science to save the mustangs, scientists with the necessary credentials and expertise in wildlife management, ecology, contraceptive experts, and equine ethology all working to establish the best and most humane method of managing wild horses. Each management area is unique and each management area needs its own method of achieving appropriate and healthy numbers. The phrase “managing them to eradication” is more accurate, less sensational rhetoric and implies the same message without any controversy regarding the species/subspecies status of the wild mustangs.  


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Meredith Hudes-Lowder is a Nurse Practitioner in Women’s Health and an expert on contraception. Additionally, she has a bachelor’s of biology with a concentration in environmental education.  She will graduate in May 2016 with a Doctorate of Nursing Practice. She runs the largest exclusively wild horse photography site on Facebook with Karen McLain- they have almost half a million fans. Bruce Lowder was consulted for this blog. He is a wildlife expert, naturalist, and worked for U.S. Fish and Game.
References:

Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., Steffens, W. L., Ard, M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (2001). Immunolocalization of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephants. Theriogenology, 55(8), 1705-1717. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3
Gray, M. E., & Cameron, E. Z. (2010). Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence. Reproduction, 139(1), 45-55. doi:10.1530/rep-08-0456


Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance (2016). Webage URL http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main. Accessed 01/11/2016.

Killian, G., Diel, N., Miller, L., Rhyan, J, Thain, D. (2006). Long-Term Efficacy of Three Contraceptive Approaches for Population Control of Wild Horses. USDA National Wildlife Research Center – Staff Publications.

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Liu, I. M. K., Turner, J. W., Naugle, R., & Keiper, R. (1992). LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 94(2), 437-444.  Retrieved from ://WOS:A1992HR77000018
Kirkpatrick, J. F., Rowan, A., Lamberski, N., Wallace, R., Frank, K., & Lyda, R. (2009). The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlife. Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 83(1-2), 151-157. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257
Lyda, R. O., Hall, J. R., & Kirkpatrick, J. F. (2005). A comparison of Freund’s Complete and Freund’s Modified Adjuvants used with a contraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus). J Zoo Wildl Med, 36(4), 610-616. doi:10.1638/04104.1

National Research Council, (2013). Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program: A Way Forward. PDF accessed 01/12/16: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/13511/using-science-to-improve-the-blm-wild-horse-and-burro-program.

Phraluk, Orasa; Wajjwalku, Worawidh; Siriaroonrat, Boripat; Booddee, Orawan; Thongtip, Nikorn. (2015). Effects of immunization against gonadotropin releasing hormone on reproductive functions in male rusa deer (Rusa timorensis). The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 45.1   (Mar 2015): 1,3-10.
Ransom, J.,   Roelle, J.,  Cade, B., Coates-Markle, L., Kane, A., Ransom, Jason I., Roelle, James E., Cade, Brian S.,Coates-Markle, L., & Kane, A. (2011) Foaling Rates in Feral Horses Treated With the Immunocontraceptive Porcine Zona Pellucida. WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN.
Ransom, J. I., Hobbs, N. T., & Bruemmer, J. (2013). Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and Resources. Plos One, 8(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054972
Ransom, J. I., Powers, J. G., Garbe, H. M., Oehler Sr, M. W., Nett, T. M., & Baker, D. L. (2014). Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraception. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 81-92. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002
Speroff, L., & Fritz, M. (2012). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility (8th ed.). New Yok: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Turner, J. W., Liu, I. K. M., Flanagan, D. R., & Rutberg, A. T. (2007). Immunocontraception in wild horses: One inoculation provides two years of infertility. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71(2), 662-667. doi:10.2193/2005-779

Zhanwei, S. (1989). Chemical castration of horses and mules by injecting testis with iodine tincture. Journal of Liaoning Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine.

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Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (1998). Staining patterns to the zona pellucida of the dog, cat, horse and elephant with porcine zona pellucida (pZP) antisera. Theriogenology, 49(1), 307-307. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(98)90660-4
Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., Steffens, W. L., Ard, M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (2001). 

Immunolocatiom of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephants. Theriogenology, 55(8), 1705-1717. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3


Berger, J. (1983). Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses. Nature, 303(5912), 59-61.  Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/303059a0

Bowling, A. T., & Touchberry, R. W. (1990). Parentage of Great Basin Feral Horses. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 54(3), 424-429. doi:10.2307/3809652

Duncan, P. (1982). Foal killing by stallions. Applied Animal Ethology, 8(6), 567-570. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3762(82)90221-8
Feh, C. (1990). Long-term paternity data in relation to different aspects of rank for camargue stallions, Equus caballus. Animal Behaviour, 40(5), 995-996. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)81007-3

Feh, C., & Munkhtuya, B. (2008). Male infanticide and paternity analyses in a socially natural herd of Przewalski’s horses: sexual selection? Behav Processes, 78(3), 335-339. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2007.12.009

Gray, M. E. (2009). An infanticide attempt by a free-roaming feral stallion (Equus caballus). Biol Lett, 5(1), 23-25. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0571

Gray, M. E., & Cameron, E. Z. (2010). Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence. Reproduction, 139(1), 45-55. doi:10.1530/rep-08-0456
Gray, M. E., Thain, D. S., Cameron, E. Z., & Miller, L. A. (2010). Multi-year fertility reduction in free-roaming feral horses with single-injection immunocontraceptive formulations. Wildlife Research, 37(6), 475-481. doi:10.1071/wr09175
Jordana, J., Pares, P. M., & Sanchez, A. (1995). ANALYSIS OF GENETIC-RELATIONSHIPS IN HORSE BREEDS. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 15(7), 320-328. doi:10.1016/s0737-0806(06)81738-7
Kavar, T., & Dovc, P. (2008). Domestication of the horse: Genetic relationships between domestic and wild horses. Livestock Science, 116(1-3), 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2008.03.002

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Liu, I. M. K., Turner, J. W., Naugle, R., & Keiper, R. (1992). LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 94(2), 437-444.  Retrieved from ://WOS:A1992HR77000018

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Rowan, A., Lamberski, N., Wallace, R., Frank, K., & Lyda, R. (2009). The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlife. Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 83(1-2), 151-157. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257

Kirkpatrick, J. F., & Turner, A. (2002). Reversibility of action and safety during pregnancy of immunization against porcine zona pellucida in wild mares (Equus caballus). Reproduction (Cambridge, England) Supplement, 60, 197-202.  Retrieved from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12220160

Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Minot, E. O., & Stafford, K. J. (1999). Stallion harassment and the mating system of horses. Anim Behav, 58(2), 295-306. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1155

Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Stafford, K. J., & Minot, E. O. (2013). Removal experiments indicate that subordinate stallions are not helpers. Behav Processes, 94, 1-4. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2013.02.005

Lyda, R. O., Hall, J. R., & Kirkpatrick, J. F. (2005). A comparison of Freund’s Complete and Freund’s Modified Adjuvants used with a contraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus). J Zoo Wildl Med, 36(4), 610-616. doi:10.1638/04104.1

Madosky, J. M., Rubenstein, D. I., Howard, J. J., & Stuska, S. (2010). The effects of immunocontraception on harem fidelity in a feral horse (Equus caballus) population. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 128(1–4), 50-56. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.09.013

Mask, T. A., Schoenecker, K. A., Kane, A. J., Ransom, J. I., & Bruemmer, J. E. (2015). Serum antibody immunoreactivity to equine zona protein after SpayVac vaccination. Theriogenology, 84(2), 261-267. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.03.012

Massei, G., & Cowan, D. (2014). Fertility control to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts: a review. Wildlife Research, 41(1), 1-21. doi:10.1071/wr13141

Nuñez, C. M. V., Adelman, J. S., Mason, C., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2009). Immunocontraception decreases group fidelity in a feral horse population during the non-breeding season. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 117(1–2), 74-83. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.001

Pluhacek, J., & Bartos, L. (2000). Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli. Anim Behav, 59(4), 689-694. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1371

Ransom, J. I., Hobbs, N. T., & Bruemmer, J. (2013). Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and Resources. Plos One, 8(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054972

Ransom, J. I., Powers, J. G., Garbe, H. M., Oehler Sr, M. W., Nett, T. M., & Baker, D. L. (2014). Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraception. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 81-92. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002

Schulman, M. L., Botha, A. E., Muenscher, S. B., Annandale, C. H., Guthrie, A. J., & Bertschinger, H. J. (2013). Reversibility of the effects of GnRH-vaccination used to suppress reproductive function in mares. Equine Veterinary Journal, 45(1), 111-113. doi:10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00577.x

Speroff, L., & Fritz, M. (2012). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility (8th ed.). New Yok: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Turner, J. W., Liu, I. K. M., Flanagan, D. R., & Rutberg, A. T. (2007). Immunocontraception in wild horses: One inoculation provides two years of infertility. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71(2), 662-667. doi:10.2193/2005-779



by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Sand Wash Basin

Well Sand Wash did not disappoint the first day- we took almost 5,000 photos between myself, Abby and Ben. We saw many herds, a lot of foals and the weather was wonderful- we even saw a rainbow at the end of the day. The second day (today) the weather began sunny but soon turned for the worse. The wind was blowing strongly and the thunder and lightning started all around us. Oddly, very little rain fell in the Basin. The  roads are mostly soft sandy clay and quickly turn to soup with any appreciable precipitation. We were lucky and stayed near the entrance when we saw the cloud begin to build. Still, we saw a fair number of horses and were able to photograph several herds. We return tomorrow for our final day and hopefully we will see John Wagner and other friends of the Sand Wash Basin mustangs…

We are about to hit one quarter of a million fans and we are soooo thrilled! Thanks so much for being a fan of Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography!

Meredith, Abigail, Benjamin, Karen, Angie, Cindy, Marianne, Aly, Lauren and The Three Amigos of the Sand Wash Basin!
by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

THE SUMMER 2014 ADVENTURE WITH THE MUSTANGS!

Let the Mustang 2014 Summer Adventure begin!!!!

I’ll be sending photos and blog entries for our adventures this summer as we travel west to find the mustangs. Ahead for the Summer 2014 are the McCullough Peaks, Sand Wash Basin, Spring Creek Basin, possibly Little Book Cliffs and the Cloud Foundation Celebration of Wild Horses Art and Music. 
The three photographs below are our contribution to this milestone event. Last summer Ben took “The Chase” at the tender age of eight, Abby’s met “Cloud’s Encore” at age ten… they both carry Canon Rebel 3t’s which are light and I used my Canon 7D to snap “The Emissary” below. Cloud is often referred to as the ‘ambassador’ of wild mustangs, hence the derivation of the title. This is the first time all three are being presented together…
The Chase by Benjamin Lowder

The Encore by Abigail Lowder

The Emissary by Meredith Lowder

* Please remember we don’t get this close to the horses except the crazy stallions that decided running straight at three small humans would be an excellent idea… Abby and I both use a 100-300mm Canon lens. Abby got much closer to the Cloud’s daughter Encore than any of us intended… except perhaps for Encore.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Back once again

I will be starting, or I should say ‘restarting’ the Equus ferus Blog – I had one of those password moments and kept forgetting to change the password and write it down somewhere I’d remember… So we are up and running . We just returned from Spring Creek Basin, Salt River and Little Book Cliffs. It was a wonderful trip- we met up with our friends Karen McLain and TJ Holmes– you’ll see photos shortly. In the meantime, check back from time to time…

Meredith

Myself and my daughter Abby who is also an Equus ferus- Wild Horse 
photographer at Spring Creek Basin, Colorado 
February 2014
by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Out West Day Seven- Sand Wash Basin final day

It is 7:30am an we are heading back to the Sand Wash Basin in Moffat County Colorado… I spoke to John ad he gave us some tips in where to find the elusive Picasso. It is 48F but there is no wind so it is better than the Butte yesterday!
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Well it is 12:30p and we didn’t see Picasso… However we did see almost everyone else- we estimated we saw 75+ mustangs today. We ended at 90F and a few more bruises and scratches… but it was worth every moment. The gorgeous Corona made
an appearance and I managed only a mere hundred or so photos of him.. I saw horses I have only seen in photos of the Sand Wash horse club on Facebook or John Wagner’s page.

My little photo buddy Abby walked with me -every mile up and down the ridges and bluffs, through the gullies and sagebrush. All in all we took over 9,000 photographs between Little Book Cliffs, Pilot Butte and Sand Wash Basin Horse Management Areas. The cameras are cleaned and put away. All compact flash cards are reformatted and stored in their cases and I have transferred the photos to both the laptop and the external hard drive. Currently I have Lightroom making a catalog of the weeks adventures. Just glancing thru the photographs- Abby and I took some very nice ones that we hopefully will sell and make money for the mustang rescue groups. I am so happy both my children were able to see wild horses roaming “free”- that being a relative term but it was a privilege to witness the lives of these magnificent creatures.

Stay tuned,
Meredith

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Out West Day Six- Driving to the Sand Wash

We are driving on Wyoming 430 towards Colorado and the Sand Wash Basin… This entire area, which is managed by the BLM, is desolate and mostly sage and scrub brush… There are horses here- a few scattered herds- and we managed to find a herd of three. A bay stallion, a dark brown/black mare and a chestnut foal. Abby and I had to crawl under a barbed wire fence but a fifteen foot deep gully prevented us from getting closer to the tiny herd. But we managed a few photos nevertheless.

We passed over the state line into Colorado and the road becomes a dirt road. It is an ‘open range’ which means we have to watch for cows on the road. Most of the time it isn’t a problem but once in a while we run into a cow-jam. The road, Moffat County Road, travels through a gorgeous canyon called ‘Irish Canyon’ which was a favorite hide-out for bandits and bad-boys of the old West. Butch Cassidy reputedly buried $30,000 in silver coins here and there are other rumors of $150,000 in gold ingots hidden in the canyon. It gives me the oogies (chills, the good kind).

Irish Canyon is also as Area of Critical Concern- environmentally speaking. The photo of the sign mentions some critically endangered plants. There are petroglyphs – ancient writing as well.

We are determined photographers and Abby has definitely inherited my tenacity! At Pilot Butte she was adamant about getting out of the warm car to photograph the mustangs despite being severely under-dressed for the cold. Clad in only Wellys, a sweatshirt and shorts she bravely went with me to photograph the herd… The mother in me wanted to send her back to the warm car but I gave in, allowed her to decide if it was too chilly and admired her spirit.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Out West Day Six – The Sand Wash Basin

Well here we are at Sand Wash- John Wagner is here today so maybe we’ll see him. 160,000 acres and we covered almost all of it! Eight hours of traveling by car and on foot… We shot over 1,000 photos once we found the herds in 90 F heat. Quite a change from this morning’s 45 F! Most if the herds were off the road quite a distance do Abby and I ‘hoofed it’ to get closer. We brought water with us and loads of sunscreen!

Ben and Bruce sat patiently in the car while Abby and I walked miles and miles across sage brush…. I have numerous cuts and scratches marking our travels. But we got the photos and saw a brand new foal- John Wagner says her name is ‘Wild Spirit’. We didn’t see John or his spiffy new camera but we did chat on Facebook later-

We will return to Sand Wash tomorrow and hit the water spots first- from my observations of mustangs, they often go to water first thing in the morning!