Category / Equus ferus-Wild Horse Photography

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

How to perform research….

Why do we need research? 

For myself, it is a scholarly inquiry, curiosity, and the desire to learn more about the world. I want to be able to discuss issues in the mustang community in a voice that is backed by as much scholarly research as I can find.

Research is not perfect, scientists aren’t always truthful and falsify, skew, or fudge their data (read up on the Fat vs. Big Sugar issue, a recent discovery that changed the way we view the relative nutrition of fatty foods.). A lot of research is funded by grants (money) and some grants come from big companies. The companies, in turn, have agendas and sometime scientist may tweak data to please their benefactors to get more grants. There are also predatory journals which publish articles that are not scholarly or scientific so just because you see someone “published,” it may not mean much (more about those journals later). This is why reputable journals are peer reviewed, or examined minutely by experts in the field who are good at spotting false data and questionable analyses.

If you find a lot of studies that say the same thing over and over (vaccines are safe and not to linked autism) and one study that conflicts with those studies (vaccines cause autism). It might be prudent to err on the side of the majority and conclude vaccines do NOT cause autism (and the author of the ‘vaccines cause autism study ‘admitted he made up his data; he lied). Most data is scientifically rigorous, subject to strict rules and regulations including behavior regarding human and animal subjects in research. This committee that oversees research is called the “Institutional Review Board”.

The IRB: Every University or college that conducts research must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) which oversees the subjects in research whether human or animal. The rules are very strict and this group reviews EVERY proposed study. If you want to know more, Google the university name and IRB. You’ll find a ton of information regarding animal handling, care, and what is acceptable and humane. They have links to report studies you think are behaving in an unethical manner, however you must have first hand knowledge of the behavior and you need proof. You can’t use a recycled photo of a horse with sutures/staples along the animal’s flank claiming this study is harmful. Remember, a university may not agree with your definition of ethical, however the IRB is in place to ensure the research is generally regarded as ethical, and is conducted in a manner protecting the welfare of the participants. I picked Montana State University as an example, please take a look. (http://www.montana.edu/orc/iacuc/).

How to conduct research

First, you must begin with a question. We will look at the lethal white syndrome as an example later. The best place to start is Google Scholar. You can use plain Google, but if you’re looking for research studies, it’s a better place to start your search. Go to Google and type in Scholar, this will take you to Google Scholar https://scholar.google.com/

Now you need keywords– words that will help refine your search on your topic. You’ll need to be as accurate as possible to narrow the search field. Sometimes the keywords are terms you may not agree with such as the keyword “feral” for wild horses, but it is a scientific term used to describe undomesticated, unowned horses. Use different but similar words like horse, stallion, band, herd, mare, foal, wild, feral, mustang, equine, equid, behavior, ethology; you get the idea. Once you get an article that deals with your topic, the authors often provide keywords for their article, and this can help you find better keywords to refine your search efforts along with the titles of the articles themselves.

Remember, all you need is one or two decent studies published on your topic in the past five years or so to seed your research studies. From those studies, the reference list at the end of each article is a treasure trove of other articles related to your search. Other useful types of articles are systematic reviews, meta-analysis, or an integrative review. These studies are reviews of a lot of other studies. A “Systematic Review of the Temperament of Chestnut Horses” would be a study examining a lot of other studies on chestnut horse temperament. It’s a summary of the available research and very useful to find. Some of the journal publishing groups will allow you to view the abstract AND will list all the articles that used that article in their study. The “cited by…” is an excellent tool and is often a springboard to other articles related to your topic. Sometimes the web page will ‘suggest’ other studies based on your search terms/keywords. (See the research example below). Use systematic review, meta-analysis, integrative review or open access in your searches.

Abstracts without the full study. As you perform research, you may find there is a fee to view the whole article. Some research is Open Access and the author/publisher posts the full version visible to everyone; some journals are private.  Unless you are affiliated (work for a university, you are a student and have access to a university library), you may not be able to read the whole article. The abstract is an excellent starting point it’s a summary of the study and gives a quick overview of to what the researchers discovered in their study. If you can’t get the full article, the abstract gives you a general idea of the findings of the study and is meaningful.

If you are lucky enough to have an entire article to read, I usually start with the abstract, then the background and significance, followed by the discussion/conclusion. I like to know what the researchers found before I read through the methods, data analysis, and results sections. If you want to research and do a decent job, learn the basics of research. Invest in few good books on research and a beginner’s guide to statistics. Most data are analyzed using statistics, and a basic knowledge is useful. (Note that the word data is plural in scientific research).

Journals: Size does matter

Journals: How do you know if a journal is respected and scholarly? It is pretty simple, it is the number of citations and consistently publishing scholarly, scientifically rigorous research papers. A citation is a reference or footnote where the author of one article quotes or takes excerpts from another article. They are usually written as (Hudes-Lowder, 2016) or add a number to the sentence. Hudes-Lowder said all Thoroughbreds are great horses1 . This number or article referenced can usually be found at the end of the paper or the bottom of the page if it is a footnote. Unless a citation is enclosed in quotes, the author is paraphrasing the results of another research study. 

If a research article is scientifically rigorous and scholarly, people will use it as a reference in their paper, so articles with a lot of citations are considered good research.  How can you find this magic number? The impact factor is defined as the number of citations, go to Resurchify and you’ll be able to locate the journal’s “impact factor.”  Type in the name of a journal and see the impact factor. The higher the number, the more citations found for articles in that journal. Most journals are between 0.5-5 although a few medical journals in medicine have an impact factor greater than forty. It is not a perfect system, but it does offer a way to quantify research. Be a research snob, only use the best journals and well cited articles!

What are peer reviewed journals? By strict definition, a peer-reviewed journal is one in which the submitted articles are reviewed by “peers” in your chosen field of science. For example, a nursing journal is reviewed by other nurses.  The term “peer” is a bit of misnomer because the review board members are regarded as experts in their field and not necessarily on the same scientific or academic level as new graduate right out of a Masters level program who is looking to publish their research study. However, peer-reviewed journals are more scholarly, and therefore better than non-peer reviewed journals since the submitted articles are judged by a panel of experts. The exception to this type of peer review are the predatory pay- per-publication journals (see below).

Scholarly vs. Predatory Pay-per-Publication Journals 

An infamous self-proclaimed ‘wildlife ecologist’ in the mustang community named Craig Downer published a paper (2014) in the Journal of Life Science call “The Horse and Burro as Positively Contributing Returned Natives in North America” . Curious, I looked up the journal’s impact factor but could not find any reference to this journal. I went to the journal’s website and found it was a member of the Science Publishing Group. Claiming to be peer reviewed, this group publishes journals, none of which were familiar. Immediately, I became suspicious that this was a predatory pay-per-publication journal. There is a website that tracks these journals called Beall’s List and these fake-journals essentially publish anything for a fee. The peers who review the submitted journals are often fictions or scientists with no standing in the scientific community.  Mr. Downer could not find a reputable scientific journal to publish his study, so he paid the Science Publishing Group instead. Resorting to these predatory journals is a clear indicator that the study is poorly researched, lacks significant credibility, and has little value to the scientific or mustang communities.

These predatory journals have no credibility, no academic, or scientific value, and they are regarded as jokes by most scientists. Only very desperate scientists and people who were dismissed from colleges, universities, and research labs publish in these journals. To the average person who doesn’t know much about research, it looks prestigious to see an article published in a peer-review viewed journal but remember, not all journals are equal. They are called predatory because they prey on recent graduates who may have trouble publishing and may not know these journals are disreputable. Sadly, international student get roped into paying a lot of money to ‘publish’ in an American journal without knowing it is the scientific equivalent of the National Enquirer.  While I was in school, I regularly received emails from predatory journals and my university warns students about them early in most programs. My daughter Abby published in the journal “Personality and Individual Differences” while in high-school and she still receives emails asking her to publish “for a small fee” and even to sit on the “peer review boards” of some of the more sketchy journals at the age of sixteen. (Link to Abby’s article) & (Click here for the Impact Factor of her journal).

Along with poor quality journals, avoid articles published in magazines like Time. Time magazine utilizes decent research, but you should review the reference list at the end of the article. The same applies to a newspaper, ANYTHING you read online, Wikipedia, people who quote or cite themselves, and always remember to question everything. Just because it is online, that doesn’t mean it is true and check citations. People can write anything and claim it came from a source, but you should check the actual source.  Even reputable scholarly journals can be fooled by research so keep an open mind and be curious. It is surprising how much false information is on the Internet especially in the mustang advocacy.

Remember if an article you are reading comes from a journal that asks for money to publish and offers 50% off your first article; it’s best to ‘move along, these are not the journals you are looking for’.
-Dr Hudes-Lowder

Books are available online or in libraries, and these can be used for research. For scientific research, it is best to avoid ‘self-published’ books from Blurb, CreateSpace, or similar self-publishers. It’s not to say these books are without merit, but they are usually not strong examples of rigorous scientific inquiry. If they had more scientific merit, they would have been picked up by a publishing house. Many represent the view of the author and not necessarily hard science, so it’s probably best to leave the conspiracy theorists on the shelf when conducting serious and scholarly research. 

Research example:

Research example:

I decided to research ‘lethal white syndrome’ as an example because it appears in mustang populations and I am fascinated by coat colour inheritance. It is an inherited condition and as the name states, lethal in newborn foals. I did a blog post about this condition located here.

I went to Google Scholar and typed “lethal white syndrome in horses” and selected the article “ The impact of the mutation causing overo lethal white syndrome on white patterning in horses”. I like articles with titles I comprehend immediately, with this in mind, I selected the second link.  

The PDF icon (also document or text icon) is great to find. This means the article is free and you can download it. I usually recommend downloading any article you can on your topic. The reference section at the back of each article is also an excellent resource. Create a folder with your research topic as the folder name and download all articles and abstracts to that folder. A good recommendation is to save the file with the title of the article rather than the alphanumerics that is usually the filename – otherwise, you’ll have fifteen articles with names like 1234569horsesaregreat.pdf, and you’ll end up having to open each one to find the article you are looking for.

The article “[PDF] The impact of the mutation causing overo lethal white syndrome on white patterning in horses” is in the journal American Association of Equine Practitioners which has a respectable impact factor of 2.888 (2020) and is published by Science Direct which is well regarded in the scientific community. As a reminder, you can find a journal’s Impact Factor at Resurchify. One of the authors has a PhD which is important because it means he worked for a minimum of two and as many as six years at a university performing research, evaluating scientific studies, and learning how to write for scientific publications. 

CiteScore and Journal Impact Factor are similar in that they tally the number of citations a research article generates, but the CiteScore calculation is based on the Scopus database, while Impact Factor is .

Arizona State University (and Karen McLain’s alma mater) has a nice chart:

Scopus vs. Web of Science

FeatureScopus (as of 01/2020)Web of Science (as of 01/2020)
Indexed Journals25,100 active14,558 inactive21,100
Indexed Proceedings120,000 events9.8 million papers210,000 events70 million citations (individual papers not listed)
Date Range1970 – present1900 – Present (ASU will maintain access to indexing from 1900 to 2020)
Update FrequencyDailyDaily
Citation AnalysisYes Yes
Export RecordsYes  Yes
Export ReportsYes  Yes
Alerts ServiceYes  Yes
Author ProfilesGenerated and edited by Scopus  Author created and edited through ResearcherID
From: https://libguides.asu.edu/c.php?g=1080400&p=7885282

Sources: 

Scopus data: Scopus Content Coverage Guide
Web of Science data: Web of Science Core Collection
Table adapted from Iowa State University Library’s “Scopus vs. Web of Science vs. Google Scholar” Comparison Chart

Once you have the article or the abstract on a particular topic, print them out. Now, sit down with a large cup of coffee and at least five highlighters in different colors, a four color pen and read. Highlight things that make sense and get a feel for the study and what authors found in their research. Keep a legal pad hand and write the author(s)and the date of the study- then summarize.  If you plan to publish your spectacular research online, download a copy of “EndNotes” (http://endnotes.com) and use it to format your word processor in a scholarly fashion It puts in your citations and formats your reference section. It’s free and wonderful. It will format for APA, MLA, and AMA as well as other recognized scientific formats

I sincerely hope this blog was useful, if you have questions, please don’t hesitate to contact me: drmhudeslowder@gmail.com

-Dr. Meredith Hudes-Lowder
B.A., Binghamton University; B.S., Binghamton University. M.S., Stony Brook University; D.N.P., Stony Brook University

Doctorate of Nursing Practice
“Patient Acceptance of Decreased Cervical Cancer Screening Frequency in an Urban Practice“

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Cream Dilution Gene (updated)

Two Palomino Stallions spar at Sand Wash Basin
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

The Cream Gene is a modifier, or a gene that acts on one of three base colours in horses.  The three base colour are chestnut, bay, and black. Some people classify brown as separate colour but for the purposes of this discussion, we will group brown with black since the inheritance is the same.

(PLEASE TAP/CLICK ON THE PHOTOGRAPHS TO VIEW A LARGER VERSION)

A band with Palominos and buckskin race across Sand Wash Basin

The Cream Dilution can either be expressed as a single dilution, or a double dilution. Every chromosome has two alleles that represent the way in which each chromosome is inherited and you receive one allele from each parent. Simply put, the chromosomes (usually represented by letters) appear in pairs. To review high school biology, these pairs are generally dominant or recessive. Dominant genes are represented by two capital letters or one capital and one lower-case. The animal appears the same (phenotype) whether they are EE or Ee. The recessive form is represented by two lower-case letters ee.

The cream gene in the single form acts upon chestnut, bay and black by diluting the red colour to cream. The Cream Colour may be light enough to appear almost white to a dark chocolate tan colour. The black is generally unaffected so bay horses horses retain the black points, and mane/tail. Black horses appear somewhat diluted- a mousey chocolate. Horses with a single Cream dilution generally have dark eyes (unless blue from paint patterns) and black skin except where there are white markings (paint markings, facial markings, and leg markings).

Corona’s Band
There are six cream horses
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography


The double dilution, or two Cream Genes acts upon both the red and black colours. The red become light cream/off white, and the black lightens to cream. In a bay horse with two cream genes, the body colour is light cream and the points appear as a darker shade of cream. Smokey Black Creams have a slightly over all darker shade but without genetic testing, it is impossible to determine what the base colour is in these horses. All double dilute Cream horses all have pink skin and blue or light green/hazel eyes.

The double dilute horses (Cremello, Perlino & Smokey Cream) are difficult to distinguish by appearance or phenotype alone. It is possible the double dilutes are all cremellos, or perlinos- or they are dirty. Google Perlino, Cremello, or Smokey Cream to see how they truly look- they are stunning colours.

The “Sooty” modifier is a additional genetic trait in which the horse’s coat looks like someone airbrushed darker colouration over the coat. In some extreme cases, the sooty modifier can turn a palomino so dark it appears ‘chocolate’ coloured- as in the case of Cloud’s son Bolder (photos below). Sooty can occur in any color and is believed to help break-up the outline/contour of a horse (countershading) and making it harder for predators to estimate the distances of the their prey.

Echo (Palomino) and his sire Bolder (Sooty Palomino) spar
Pryor Mountain, Montana
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Cream dilutions can also appear with other dilutes such as Dun. The resulting horses are called Dunalinos (dun + palomino) and Dunskins (dun + buckskin). It can be a challenge to tell pale palominos from cremellos/perlinos horses, but look at the muzzle and other mucous membranes (grey in Palomino, pink in creams). Watch for facial markings which also appear pale-pink even on palominos. The eyes are usually dark in Palominos, and pale green or blue in Creams.

BASEONE CREAM GENETWO CREAM GENES
BAYBUCKSKINPERLINO
CHESTNUTPALOMINOCREMELLO
BLACKSMOKEY BLACKSMOKEY CREAM
Bay- Base Coat

Buckskin (varying shades) BAY + ONE CREAM GENE= BUCKSKIN

Perlino BAY + TWO CREAM GENES= PERLINO
Chestnut (BASE)
Palomino
CHESTNUT + ONE CREAM GENE= PALOMINO
Cremello
Palomino
CHESTNUT + TWO CREAM GENE= CREMELLO
Black (BASE)
Smokey Black Dun (Buckskin behind)
BLACK + ONE CREAM GENE= SMOKEY BLACK
Smokey Cream
BLACK + TWO CREAM GENE= SMOKEY CREAM

Chestnuts

Chestnut with sooty- appears most prominently in the mane and tail, base colour is chestnut.     Cimarron Sand Wash Basin ©Meredith Hudes-Lowder Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography    

 

Corona- Palomino + Dun= Dunalino
Note the primitive markings (black arrows) and typical palomino colouration
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Palomino- mid colour
Bobby
Sand Wash Basin
©Meredith Hudes-Lowder
Bobby (2)
Sand Wash Basin
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Palomino- Light
McCullough Peaks
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

  Buckskin Stallion with two light palominos in his band Buggs Band Sand Wash Basin
Buggs is a buckskin, and note the dark eyes on the paler palominos
©Karen McLain Studio
Cloud- a well-know Palomino (in memoriam)
His son is Bolder (sooty palomino below)
His grandson Echo (pale palomino below)
Pryor Mountain
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Palomino with Sooty Bolder Well known for changing colour as he aged, Bolder has the Sooty gene expressed almost to the maximum. Born lighter, each year he grew darker and darker.  Some liver chestnut horses that have a cream gene are called “chocolate palominos” and may be hard to distinguish from Sooty palominos but the chocolate palominos tend to be browner and the colour is more uniform and not scattered as we see here on Bolder.   Pryor Mountain ©Karen McLain Studio Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography    

Palomino with sooty- Bolder and his son Echo, a light palomino Pryor Mountain
©Karen McLain Studio

(Left) Light Palomino Echo, (Right) Sooty Palomino Bolder
Sire -right, Colt – left
Pryor Mountain
©Karen McLain Studio
(Rear) Palomino with sooty restricted to the forelegs, face, and chest.
(Front) Tripod, a cremello- note the pink skin around his muzzle.  
Sand Wash Basin
©Karen McLain Studio Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography    
Pale Palomino Foal “Isabella”
Sand Wash Basin
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography
The pale cream color was so highly prized by Queen Isabelle de-Bourbon that they became known as Isabella Palominos. Only royalty were allowed to own this beautiful golden colour.
Elisabeth of France or Isabella of Bourbon (22 November 1602 – 6 October 1644) was Queen Consort of Spain (1621 to 1644) and Portugal (1621 to 1640) as the first spouse of King Philip IV of Spain. Queen Isabella gifted some gold horses to Juan de Palomino which is where this color gets its name. Note the grey muzzle and dark eyes indicating this ia a pale palomino.
(https://baroquehorse.com.au/history-of-the-isabella-horse/)
Meteor – Palomino Tovero Sand Was Basin

BAYS

Sooty Bay  
McCullough Peaks
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography  

                 

YELLOW ARROWS= Bay with Sooty PINK ARROW= Bay GREEN ARROW= Primitive Bay or Bay with Pangaré or a lightening over the soft area- muzzle, flanks, eyes, stifle) .A wild Bay is a bay with paler colour and the black points of the legs do not extend above the knees/hocks- often paler in comparison.   McCullough Peaks ©Karen McLain Studio Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography      

YELLOW ARROWS= Bay with Sooty   PINK ARROWS= Bay McCullough Peaks ©Karen McLain StudioEquus ferus -Wild Horse Photography TM

Buckskin Stallion Sand Wash Basin
Buggs
©Karen McLain Studio
Buckskin Tobiano Yearling
In spite of a blue eye- her black mane, partial black tail and dark muzzle indicate she is a buckskin.
Great Desert Basin
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography
A Dunskin, or Dun + Buckskin
Note the primitive markings (wither marks, zebra stripes on his legs)
Great Desert Basin, Utah
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Buckskin Mare with her Cremello colt    
McCullough Peaks
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography TM

Buckskin Mare- slight Sooty    
McCullough Peaks
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography TM

Sooty Buckskin
McCullough Peaks
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

Always identify the cream variant before the mud bath
Echo (Cloud’s Grandson)
Pryor Mountain, Montana
©Equus ferus -Wild Horse Photography

 

Genotype at the agouti locusChestnut horsesPalomino horses
A+_Light chestnutCream palomino
AA_Red chestnut, with AAAA being the reddestGolden palomino
At_Standard chestnutSeasonal palomino
Aa AaLiver chestnutChocolate palomino

 Bibliography
Gower, J. (1999). Horse color explained: A breeder’s perspective. North Pomfret, VT: Trafalgar Square.    

Kathman, L. (2014). The equine tapestry: An introduction to horse colors and patterns. Charlotte, NC.: Blackberry Lane Press.  

Sponenberg, D. P. (1996). Equine color genetics. Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Presented by Dr Meredith Hudes-Lowder

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Getting Ready for Walkabout 2020

This year Karen and I will be going to only two horse management areas to reduce travel during the pandemic. We will spend a week at Sand Wash Basin in Colorado, and a week at Great Desert Basin in Utah. Ordinarily, we have two or three trips per year, but for safety, we decided on one summer trip. We are excited to spend a lot of time living on the range with the wild horses once again. The spring was stressful for the entire world as we battled an unseen enemy and mourned those we lost to Covid 19… I worked on the frontline of medicine in one of the hardest hit spots, New York City. Karen tirelessly sewed hundreds of cloth masks during the critical shortage of medical supplies. Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography donated bolts of cloth for the masks.

Anya & Koko
This year we have two very special guests on the Mustang Walkabout. Anya (12) and Koko (10) are rescued pugs from Arizona Pug Life Rescue. Koko is blind and wears a halo from Muffin’s Halos when she is in unfamiliar territory to prevent her from walking into things. Anya will wear Doggles for trips through the sagebrush to protect her eyes. Both dogs will wear protective paw booties to guard against cactus and painful burrs of the Bur-grass plant (Cenchrus echinatus)... I bring hemostats (fancy medical tweezers) to remove the burrs from our shoes & socks, and we hope the booties will protect Anya & Koko from painful thorns and burrs.

Supplies: Camera

Labeling the memory cards. I use the larger 64 GB cards first, then the 32GB cards. We often buy new cards halfway through the Walkabout as we travel from one management area to another… Next weekend, I’ll be getting the photography equipment ready.

Solar cooker

This year we are trying out a new concept: the solar cooker. Karen has been making many of her meals in the two cookers and they have come out delicious! Pictured at two cheese enchiladas and one mushroom meal…. Mmmmmmmmm. We will eat like royalty!

Canine Air Conditioning (‘Swamp Cooler’)

Because pugs are prone to overheating, Karen purchased a swamp cooler. Based on the principle of evaporative cooling, this little gadget will keep Anya and Koko in air conditioned comfort while we photograph wild horses. We also have a small raised bed (made by Karen) for the dogs, so they won’t have to lie on the hot earth… can you say spoiled?

Solar generator

This generator will be a first for us. We treasure the sounds of nature at night and prefer to not have the noise of a gas-powered generator intrude upon our solitude. This silent generator will be useful to charge small electronics, a small fridge, ice-maker ( I am really excited for that), our phones, and other devices…

Please visit our Facebook page to stay up to date on our adventures…
https://www.facebook.com/Equus.ferus.Wild.Horse.Photography

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Meet & Shoot August 6, 2021

THE MUSTANG WALKABOUT 
FREE PHOTOGRAPHY WORKSHOP

An Introduction to the Mustangs of Sand Wash Basin
Each year we (Meredith & Karen) spend one day of our Annual Mustang Walkabout taking a group of wild horse enthusiasts all over Sand Wash Basin in search of wild horses. We spend an entire day driving all over the Basin looking for mustangs. If you want, we will help you set up your shots, choose the best lighting, teach you how to use your camera, and we provide information on horse behaviour, management on the range, genetics of coat color, and any other topics that might arise. We have spent the past thirteen summers living with wild horses on the range. Cindy from the Wild Horse Warriors of Sand Wash Basin comes along and she knows every hiding place, and where to best locate horses.  

This is a FREE event, but space is limited!

What do I need to attend?

Please remember- you don’t need everything on this list
Please message us and we will guide you through selecting the best camera & supplies…

Camera: I bring a Canon 7D Mark ii and a backup Canon Rebel T3ii. The lenses fit both. I usually have them professionally cleaned over the winter, so they are ready for the spring, summer, and autumn photography trips. A professional camera is not necessary- people often use a simple point and shoot or even a cell phone camera.
 
Lenses: I use a 100-400mm image stabilised Canon lens most of the time. The Rebel has an 18-135 mm for panoramic vistas. I carry both in the field to make sure my lenses overlap. I also have an 18-55 mm, but that won’t cover the area from 55-100 mm, so I bring the 18-135 mm. This way I have a full range of lens choice that overlap. A lot of camera stores sell refurbished used lenses, and this is a great way to get a lens for a reduced price.  You must have a lens with a minimum distance of 300 mm because you cannot approach the horses closer than 100 feet in most management areas, so a long lens is crucial.
 
Memory Cards: I buy new cards every year. The most important thing is the speed and the size. Get a size that you won’t have to swap cards out frequently, but make sure to have extras. I find the highest speeds to be the best for mustang photography. For the SD Cards, go for the minimum of  90-95 MB/sec read/write and Class 3. Compact Flash Cards come in 120mb/s for the high-speed setting. You want to be able to use the camera’s rapid-fire capability, so you’ll want the card to match the speed of the camera. I also recommend many smaller sized cards versus one huge card. I usually carry 64MB, 32MB and few 16MB.
 
If something spectacular happens (and it often does), those photos may turn out to be some of your best work, take the card out of the camera and put it in a safe place when the action is over. The precious photos will be safe, and you won’t have to deal with a card failure (rare, but it happens). I kept my first photos of Picasso on a CF Card and carried all the way home after backing it up multiple times.  Another trick- I keep empty cards in my right pocket, and used cards in my left. They are numbered 1,2,3 etc. and this way I instantly know what cards are used and which are empty.
 
Batteries: I carry four. Two are in the battery-grip for the camera all the time, and so far, I haven’t had to replace the double battery even after 12 hours of shooting. But I always carry four freshly charged batteries in the field. The backup camera has a single battery, and I carry a spare. We charge them using car charger adaptors, or we also use a PowerVerter or Power Inverter which offers plugs and uses the car lighter for the power source. We charge batteries while we drive to save time.
 
Monopod/Tripod: There are wonderful to stabilise your camera. At places like the waterhole, there is a lot of action going on all the time. Karen usually has one leg of her tripod extended, and she will drop the other two if it looks like we will be stationary for a while. I usually carry the tripod with all three legs extended.
 
External Hard Drives: I carry a 2TB hard drive, and I upload every night. I don’t even look at the photos until they are backed-up on two external hard drives and then, sparingly. Once I am home, they get backed up via the Cloud, and the hard drive goes into the safe. Only then do I go through all the photos.
 
Computer/ Laptop: I bring my MacBook into the field. It is very light and has a nice sized screen. I opted for the Macbook over the MacBook-Air because the Macbook run Photoshop- always useful to have to examine photos if necessary or after they are backed-up.

Binoculars: As an avid bird watcher, I have a good sturdy pair. You’ll need them for the bands in the distance.  I have a simple pair of 8×42 Bushnell

Sundries:
  • Sunscreen- tons of the stuff
  • Cooling evaporative towel (Frog Tog)
  • Lens cleaning kits
  • Storm covers- some of the best photos are just before a storm, but protect your camera at all times.
  • Food/water/cell phone with a car charger
  • Snacks- jerky, chips, fruit…
  • Snakebite kit, yes there are snakes out on the range. So far, no one has been bitten, just watch where you put your feet at all times. The Prairie Rattlesnake is generally docile, but even the shyest snake will bite if it is stepped on. Some people wear snake-gaiters, and I carry a pair. We carry a snake hook which allows us to move a snake off the road or away from habitation safely for both snake and snake wrangler. Please remember, my husband is a herpetologist, and I have a lot of experience handling snakes (so don’t try this at home).
*Always let some know where you are, how long you plan to be there, and when you expect to return.
 

We do have an emergency medically trained guide in the unlikely event of any injuries
Sponsored by: Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography & Karen McLain Studio

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Frame Overo

When I first sat down to go through my photographs, I was hoping to have five or six good examples of the Frame Overo trait. I was pleasantly surprised to find so many mustangs with this particular pattern. Interestingly, I found Frame Overo mustangs principally at Sand Wash Basin and Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. It is entirely possible there are some Frame Overos at other management areas, but neither Karen nor I had photographed any of them. The Frame Overo is also unique to North America. This pinto pattern is common only in Spanish Colonial Horses or their descendants. However, the trait occasionally, but rarely. appears in European-derived horses such as Thoroughbreds, Ethiopian breeds, and miniature horses (Sponenberg, 2009).

Frame Overo horses that have white patches superimposed on a background of any base colour such as roan, bay, chestnut, palomino and so on. The white colour often begins as a patch on the neck or barrel and spreads horizontally. The back almost always remains solid coloured between the withers and tail. The white patches are irregularly edged and splashy (Bailey & Brooks, 2013) although some white markings are clean and crisp, similar to tobianos (Sponenberg, 2009). The markings usually do not have the lacy or frosted appearance of Sabino patterned horses (Kerson, 2015)

The tail is generally one colour and at least one leg is usually solid coloured although often all four legs are solid. If the legs are solid, they may have socks or stockings in a pattern one might find on a non-pinto horse. The markings on the head are often extensive, bonnet or apron-faces are common. Additionally, they may have a pigmented upper or lower lip, or ‘moustache’ (Sponenberg, 2009).

The genetics are simple, the Frame trait is autosomal dominant, which means a Frame foal must have one Frame parent. However, if both parents have the Frame gene, there is a 25% possibility the foal will be homozygous and have two Frame genes. This foal will not survive because a homozygous Frame is linked to another genetic defect which causes loss of peristalsis (the wave-like action that moves food through the intestines), or more rarely, an incomplete colon. (Bailey & Brooks,2013). More information and examples are located at the bottom of this page.
FF= Normal color
Ff-= Frame Overo
ff= Overo Lethal White

Perhaps one of the best-known Frame Overos is Picasso from the Sand Wash Basin. This handsome Bay horse is one of the most photographed mustangs and he has a Breyer Horse modelled after him. He is a Bay Frame Overo (and possibly carries other pinto traits). Many of his numerous offspring are Frame Overos including two know Lethal White foals. There will be more information on this genetic anomaly presented below.
Picasso
Picasso
This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo stallion.
Note the white markings on neck and barrel as well as the four solid coloured legs.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
The horse on the right is a Chestnut Frame Overo
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A small family band with a Sorrel Frame Overo Stallion and a Frame Overo foal. In the management ranges, we cannot be certain of a foal’s parentage. Identifying a foal’s dam is generally more reliable than the sire. However, mares have been known to steal foals from other mares. Additionally, fillies will leave their natal bands briefly, breed with another stallion, and return to their natal band to deliver and raise the foal within the band they were born. Without genetic testing, we cannot be certain.

Hoot, Juniper, and Pinyon (2014)
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A Chestnut Frame Overo. The pigmented lip is common and may appear on the upper lip, lower lip, or both as this mustang demonstrates.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
The Chestnut Frame Overo is unusual because the right hind leg is extensively marked with white. This may be an anomalous finding, or an indication there are other pinto genes present, possibly Sabino. The heavily white face and body markings are more characteristic of Frame Overos.
Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
This charmingly marked dark (liver) Chestnut Frame Overo mare is called ‘Crazy Horse’. The freckles on her face are also known as Belton Spots and similar to the spotting found in English Setter dogs. Many horses with Belton Spots on their facial markings, also show “ermine spots” on their legs.  From Sand Wash Basin.
Although not perfectly focused, this Bay Frame Overo has Belton spots on his blaze as well as ermine spots (black spots on socks that are usually found along the coronet band). The ermine spots can cause the hoof to darken and appear striped. From Sand Wash Basin
These two beautiful sparring stallions are from Sand Wash. Kiowa on the left (Bay) and Haze on the right (Sorrel). Haze is a minimally marked Frame Overo- can you find the tiny white mark on Haze?
This is Miss Fleck- she is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin: the first image is her as a foal, the second image as a young mare. She was born into Voodoo’s band a but later joined Picasso’s band (2013). Picasso has since lost his band but he has been doing well as a bachelor. Fleck gave birth to a Lethal White Foal.
Fleck: foal, right side
Fleck: left side
This is Kiowa from the near side (left) from Sand Wash Basin. He had just been in a fight and you can see lacerations on his hip and shoulder. There is also a significant scar on Kiowa’s left haunch just below the laceration. It is believed he tangled with either a mountain lion or a wound from fighting that became infected. It is also possible he ran into a fence along the border of Sand Wash Basin and neighbouring ranches.
This is Raindancer. A lovely Chestnut Frame Overo with blue eyes from Sand Wash Basin.
This is an excellent example of a Bay Frame Overo mare from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado with a pigmented lip, flank markings and a small lower neck/shoulder marking.
Here is a lovely colt Named Van Gogh, he is one of Picasso’s many Frame Overo offspring from Sand Wash Basin.
This is Yatzee on the left and a grey stallion on the right from Sand Wash Basin. The grey is actually a Frame Overo – if you look closely at his neck, you’ll see the faint outline of the original white mark in the middle, just under his mane. He also has some white markings on his barrel. Some people refer to grey pinto as “ghost paints/pintos”. In the winter it is impossible to tell them apart from solid grey colour horses. A wet grey pinto in a summer coat is the easiest to recognise because you can see the underlying skin colour: pink under white markings and darker under the base colour
Another “Ghost- Frame Overo Grey from Sand Wash Basin. The horse on the left has several white Frame markings on his neck, barrel and just above his stifle. He also has the distinctive white apron face with the pigmented lip. The pink skin of the white marking is especially noticeable on this horse’s muzzle. If you see a horse with a pigmented lip, there is a good chance they are a pinto- often a Frame Overo. The middle horse is also a Frame Overo, this time black with four white stockings.  Four white stockings may indicate this mustang has other pinto genes.  The last horse is a Bay Frame Overo with a usual number of white leg markings. Generally, the leg markings do not rise above the knees in Frame Overos.
This family band has two Frame Overos from Sand Wash Basin. The foal, a chestnut beginning to grey-out, and the sorrel stallion. Again, notice the solid coloured legs which help distinguish Frame Overos from Tobiano pinto.
A handsome Grullo Frame Overo gelding from Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary Black Hills is a wonderful rescue organisation, please click on the link to find out more
A Black Frame Overo from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary
Bay Frame Overo with a stunning pattern from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary.
Two Black Frame Overos from Black Hill  Wild Horse Sanctuary. Note the tendency for Frame Overos to have solid colour on the spine from the withers to the dock.
Sugar, a Grulla Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
This stallion is a Chestnut Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin. It is evident he is thin but these horses receive no care. Many of the horses are underweight from untreated injuries, dental issue, and other injuries or infections that go untreated. It is truly survival of the fittest and only the strongest survive to reproduce. He was a very fiesty stallion, sparring with the bachelors and band stallions.
A dark chestnut Frame Overo pinto from Sand Wash Basin with very little white on his belly (the rest is dried mud)- referred to as a minimal Frame Overo. This stallion is called Spyder.
A Minimal Dun Frame Overo pinto from Sand Wash Basin.
This beautiful grey colt is a minimally marked Frame Overo. All four legs are solid and there is no white mark on either side. According to Sponenberg (2013), this horse will sire horses with varying amounts of white. Becuase of the lethal white syndrome, any Frame Overo owner should test both horses prior to breeding to avoid the chance of a foal that will not survive. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A minimally marked Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin named Spyder.
A beautiful Black Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin named Lightning. He was believed to be over 35 years of age at his death. He is one of the stallions responsible for the Frame Overo trait becoming so prevalent at Sand Wash Basin. He lived all his years free running amongst the Colorado sage.
A minimally marked Bay Frame Overo from Sand Wash Basin with very little white and four solid legs.
Another Minimal Frame Overo Chestnut. This is Mimi, she is a foal by Picasso and out of Mingo (2012). She has white socks but they are normal height one normally associates with solid coloured horses. The first is her right side, the second image, her left.
A lovely Palomino Frame Overo colt named Meteor. He has a lot of white on both hinds legs (the white goes up the front of the leg to the stifle) and this indicates there is probably another pinto gene such as Sabino or Tobiano, is present. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
Kokomo, a Bay stallion by Picasso and a minimally marked Chestnut Frame Overo mare walking in front. Although they are muddy, the mare has solid legs and Kokomo has both white legs marked with white including a thin strip almost reaching his chest. Although he is heavily marked with white, like his sire, they both have solid coloured backs. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado
A very Minimally Marked Frame Overo named caballero. The other side is also solid. However, there is a white spot on this stallion’s tail evident by the light colour at the end. The facial marking (apron and pigmented lip) are good indicators of a Frame Overo. Sand Wash Basin, Colorado

Lethal White

The Frame Overo (Ff or Oo) trait is found on the equine chromosome #17 at the same locus (location on a chromosome) that controls EDNRB (Endothelin Receptor B) (Sponenberg, 20009). The change in the dinucleotide that occurs in Frame Overos changes an amino acid from isoleucine to lysine which disrupts the function of the EDNRB. In homozygous Frame Overo horses (Ff), the functional inability of Receptor Type B proteins (EDNRB) causes loss of gastric ganglia precursor cell migration and loss of melanocyte migration (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).The loss of function in EDNRB prevents the embryologic migration of:

  • Gastric ganglia precursor cells from migrating, which means a loss of enervation in the digestive tracts. No nerves ending exist in the colon of these horses and function is completely disrupted. Rarely the loss of EDNRB function results in an incomplete colon (ileocolonic aganglionosis). Foals with either gastric malformation die within a few days of birth and it cannot be surgically corrected.
  • Melanocyte migration means loss of pigment, resulting in white colouration.
In heterozygous horses, the presence of one “f” results in partial solid colour, but the digestive system is normal. In lethal white, the presence of two “ff” results in a pure white horse (no melanocyte migration) and a non-functional colon, or a blocked, atrophied, or dead-end colon. The loss of gastric enervation has a similar aetiology to Hirschsprung’s Disease in humans. Overo Lethal White Syndrome is found in Frame Overo horses as well as highly white calico overo, and frame blend overo (>94%) (Santschi, Vrotsos, Purdy & Mickelson, 2001)
Mingo X Picasso
©Nancy Roberts
©Nancy Roberts

Picasso X Fleck
 ©Danielle M. Williams
 ©Danielle M. Williams
 ©Danielle M. Williams

Here is the link for more information on the Lethal White Syndrome including a handy Punnett Square

References

Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.

Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder’s Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.

Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published

Santschi, E. M., Vrotsos, P. D., Purdy, A. K., & Mickelson, J. R. (2001). Incidence of the endothelin receptor B mutation that causes lethal white foal syndrome in white-patterned horses. Am J Vet Res, 62(1), 97-103.

Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.

***A special thanks to Heather Robson & Nancy Kerson for identification and inspiration, respectively

About the Author & Photographers

AUTHOR & PHOTOGRAPHER

Dr. Meredith Hudes-Lowder, DNP, WHNP-BC, MSN, BSN, RNC, BS Biology
Meredith received a Bachelor of Science Degree from Binghamton University with an emphasis in ethology, conservation, and genetics. She received a Bachelor of Science in Nursing also from Binghamton and a Masters of Nursing in Perinatal/Women’s Health from Stony Brook University. She has a Doctorate of Nursing Practice from Stony Brook University. Her doctoral thesis was a research study on cervical cancer screening intervals. She was invited to present her research findings at the podium for the Nurse Practitioners in Women’s Health Annual Conference in New Orleans, October 2016. She is a member of several professional organisations and was inducted into Sigma Theta Tau- the Nursing Honor Society in 2007. She works at a busy medical practice in Manhattan as a Nurse Practitioner, specializing in the climacteric & menopause. She teaches Women’s Health to graduate students at Pace University in the clinical setting. When she is not busy taking care of “hot” women, Meredith can be found at the dojo practising Kobudo and Karate, performing pro-bono research for mustang advocacy, learning Korean, or playing her Lyon & Healy concert harp.


PHOTOGRAPHER
Karen McLain: Painter, artist, photographer

Karen McLain is a third generation Arizona native. Growing up in Arizona, she developed a deep appreciation for the outdoors, and for the rural and ranching lifestyle. Karen graduated from Arizona State University with a B.A. in Studio Art. She went on to pursue more traditional and realistic styles, and to create a style of her own. A number of commissioned works are accepted from collectors. The rest of the time, Karen can be found drawing or painting en plein air. These landscapes and life studies of wild horses are then developed into larger works in her studio.

McLain states: ”Painting from life not only reveals natures beauty first hand, but it also challenges me to focus and see clearly the light, form, and wonderful color present.  Time spent in the saddle, and painting en Plein air, results in an outlook that McLain describes as “Drawn from life, and inspired by life”, which is reflected in her work. See Karen’s “studio tour” here

END OF FRAME OVERO Horses
by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Tobiano Paints

 THE TOBIANO PAINTS

Disclaimer: The mustang photographs on this blog post are presented without genetic testing; we do not know the actual chromosomal make-up of the mustangs. We rely solely upon the horse’s phenotype, or how they appear physically: coat colour, white markings, eye color, mane, and tail colour.

Mammalian Pigmentation: 

The colors found in mammalian hair, skin, irises, and some internal organs is produced by the pigment melanin. Melanin appears as colored granules in these pigmented cells and occurs in two forms, eumelanin, and phaeomelanin. Eumelanin is responsible for brown and black colour, and phaeomelanin is responsible for reds and yellows (Bailey & Brooks, 2013).
Black tobiano (muddy) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The absence of melanin will appear as white in mammals. The lack of color typically associated with Paint Horses is caused by the inability of these cells to produce the base colors from birth. The color loss results in large patches of white against a base coat of any colour (bay, chestnut, roan, grey, dun, champagne, silver dapple, palomino, brown, black, etc). Additionally, the white colour has pink skin beneath. 

Assorted tobiano horses (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

There are other forms of white colouration in equines; for example gray or roan. Grey horse color is caused by the failure of melanocytes over time, so the hair starts normally pigmented but loses the ability to maintain the pigment so the horse eventually turns white(Sponenberg, 2009). Roan horses are roan from birth although they are often not recognizable until after the foal coat has shed. Roan horses typically retain the base color on their head, legs, mane, and tail. The skin beneath grey and roan horses is dark and these colors are not actual colours, but rather modifiers that act upon a base coat (Gower, 2016). 

Black tobiano demonstrating the “shield” (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography ™© Karen McLain 
A tobiano horse may also be roan, appaloosa, sabinos, overo, or any other pattern as the tobiano pattern is not a mutually exclusive coat patterns.
Bay Roan tobiano   (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Roan tobiano foal, palomino tobiano mare  (Great Desert Basin, Utah) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Equine chromosomes
The genes for four white coat patterns: roan (RN), sabinos (SB1), dominant white (W), and tobianos (TO) are located on the KIT gene.The KIT gene is responsible for sending instructions through cells that allow the cell to make specific proteins. The KIT proteins are found on the cell membrane where another protein called a “stem cell factor” binds to the KIT protein. When bound together, they activate the KIT protein, which in turn, activates other proteins within the cell. These proteins serve a variety of functions in mammalian cells such as growth, development, migration, and production of certain cell types such as interstitial gastrointestinal cells and melanocytes (Haase, Jude, Brooks, & Leeb, 2008).
Equine Chromosome #3
The KIT gene is located on the fourth chromosome at the 12 position and located very close is the ECA3 gene. The ECA3, or the third equine chromosome is the location of the chromosomal mutation responsible for tobianos. Although the KIT gene remains normal in these horses, the third chromosome has an area in the gene that has flipped. Approximately one-third the length of the chromosome is an area that is an exact mirror image in tobianos horses. Because the chromosomal inversion is adjacent to the KIT gene, it affects the KIT protein synthesis, and the cells cannot produce melanocytes- so the horse has areas of white. The test for tobianos examines the chromosome and looks for a ‘break’ (telomeric or centromeric) at the positions 13 and 21 on the third chromosome– this serves as an indication they separated and inverted during replication- the horse is genetically a tobianos (Bailey & Brooks, 2009).
The gene for tobiano horses is autosomal dominant. This means to be tobiano, a foal must have at least one tobiano parent, but they also may have two tobiano parents. If one parent is a tobiano, it does not matter what colour or pattern the other parent appears; the foal will be tobiano. If a horse matches the criteria for a tobiano, it is likely the horse has the genetic background of a tobiano, although there may be some mixing of other patterns (Gower, 2016). The patterns are not inherited exactly, however, the proportion of white to colour is inherited. In other words a horse with a lot of white will have offspring with a lot of white but this depends upon the other parent. Interestingly, the study by Woolf (1990) discovered male horses and those with chestnut coats have more white than female or bay horses. The researcher also noted that the inheritance of white leg markings and facial markings is multifactorial; there are many genes involved in the appearance of white markings (Woolf, 1990).

History:

Bay tobiano mare  (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The Tobiano paint pattern was named for General Tobías from Brazil. The General brought the paint horses to Argentina in the mid-1800’s. Before their arrival, tobiano horses were rare and had been grouped with other spotted-type horses. After General Tobías’ arrival, they were renamed after the general and placed into a unique paint coat classification(Kerson, 2015; Sponenberg, 2009)
Tobiano Characteristics:
Bay tobiano mare (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
The tobiano is defined by several coat characteristics. As with all horses, unless genetically tested, we evaluate the coat pattern by the phenotype or the horses’ physical appearance. As a general rule, tobiano horses have the following characteristics (there are always exceptions to these rules):

  1. White cross the spine somewhere between the ears and the tail (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
  2. The body white appears to travel down in a vertical fashion (Gower, 2016)
  3. The edges of the white areas tend to be crisp and well-defined (Sponenberg, 2009)
  4. Legs are white and the edge of the socks/stockings is irregular (Gower, 2016; Sponenberg, 2009)
  5. Most tobiano have dark eyes although some tobiano horses have blue eyes  (Sponenberg, 2009)
  6.  Most tobianos have white areas within the mane and tail, this gives the appearance of a bicoloured tail, a trait usually seen only in tobiano horses. (Sponenberg, 2009)
  7. The predominantly solid coloured heads of tobianos are generally conservatively marked: thin blazes, simple stars (Sponenberg, 2009)

 Some tobianos have very little white

Black tobiano (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Minimally marked black tobiano stallion -note the bicoloured tail (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Black tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Bay tobiano stallion (McCullough Peaks, Wyoming) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Some tobiano horses have very little base colour but they tend retain normally coloured heads even when extensively white.
Minimally marked light bay chestnut tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Light bay tobiano (note the minimal blaze) (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Extensively white black marked tobiano (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
Some tobiano horses have marks within the white areas and there may be some bleeding of colour between the base colour and the white areas. The smaller spots in the white areas are called ink spots, bear tracks, cat’s paws. The areas of darker colour encroaching on the white areas are referred to as halos. There may also be some roaning at the edge of colour and white. This is a historical link between these markings and homozygosity. No genetic link has been found, however anecdotally, homozygous horses often present with these marking whilst heterozygous generally do not show these markings. 

Cat’s paws & halo effect (San Wash Basin, Colorado) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain

Bay tobiano with the ‘halo’ effect (Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary, South Dakota) © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography ™ © Karen McLain
References
Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2009). Method for screening for a tobiano coat color genotype  #USPatent 8101354 B2.
Bailey, E., & Brooks, S. (2013). Horse Genetics (2nd ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: CABI.
Gower, J. (2016). Horse Color Explained: A Breeder’s Perspective. Brattleboro, Vermont: Echo Point Books & Media, Inc.
Haase, B., Jude, R., Brooks, S. A., & Leeb, T. (2008). An equine chromosome 3 inversion is associated with the tobiano spotting pattern in German horse breeds. 
Animal Genetics, 39(3), 306-309. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2008.01715.x
Kerson, N. (2015). What Color is that?  A quick guide to horse color identification: Nancy Kerson- Self Published
Sponenberg, D. (2009). Equine Color Genetics (3rd ed.). Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell.
Woolf, C. M. (1990). Multifactorial inheritance of common white markings in the Arabian horse. J Hered, 81(4), 250-256.

A special thanks to Nancy Kerson for her brilliant book “What Color is that? A quick guide to horse color identification” and to the Black Hills Wild Horse Sanctuary. A worth sanctuary for wild horses.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

GETTING READY for the MUSTANG WALKABOUT 2016

Today I took out and examined my equipment (happy dance)…

Camera: I bring a Canon 7D Mark ii and a back-up Canon Rebel T3ii. The lenses fit both. I usually have them professionally cleaned over the winter so they are ready for the spring, summer, and autumn photography trips.

Lenses: I use a 100-400mm image stabilised Canon lens most of the time. The Rebel has a 18-135 mm for panoramic vistas. I carry both in the field to make sure my lenses overlap. I also have a 18-55 mm but that won’t cover the area from 55-100 mm so I bring the 18-135 mm. This way I have a full range of lens choice that overlap. A lot of camera stores sell refurbished used lenses and this is a great way to get a lens for a reduced price.  You must have a lens with a minimum distance of 300 mm because you cannot approach the horses closer than 100 feet in most management areas so a long lens is crucial.

Memory Cards: I buy new cards every year. The most important thing is the speed and the size. Get a size that you won’t have to swap cards out frequently, but make sure to have extras. I find the highest speeds to be the best for mustang photography. For the SD Cards, go for 90-95mb/sec read/write and Class 3. Compact Flash Cards come in 120mb/s for the high speed setting. You want to be able to use the camera’s rapid fire capability, so you’ll want the card to match the speed of the camera. I also recommend many smaller sized cards versus one huge card. I usually carry 64MB, 32MB and few 16MB.

If something spectacular happens (and it often does), those photos may turn out to be some of your best work, take the card out of the camera and put it in a safe place when the action is over. The precious photos will be safe and you won’t have to deal with a card failure (rare, but it happens). I kept my first photos of Picasso on a CF Card and carried all the way home after backing it up multiple times.  Another trick- I keep empty cards in my right pocket, and used cards in my left. They are numbered 1,2,3 etc and this way I instantly know what cards are used and which are empty.

Batteries: I carry four. Two are in the battery-grip for the camera all the time and so far, I haven’t had to replace the double battery even after 12 hours of shooting. But I always carry four freshly charged batteries in the field. The back-up camera has a single battery and I carry a spare. We charge them using car charger adaptors or we also use a PowerVerter or Power Inverter which offers plugs and uses the car lighter for the power source. We charge batteries while we drive to save time.

Monopod/Tripod: There are wonderful to stabilise your camera. At places like the waterhole, there is a lot of action going on all the time. Karen usually has one leg of her tripod extended and she will drop the other two if it looks like we will be stationary for a while. I usually carry the tripod with all three legs extended.

External Hard Drives: I carry a 2TB hard drive and a ColorSpace UDMA2 and I upload every night. I don’t even look at the photos until they are backed-up on two external hard drives and then, sparingly. Once I am home, they get backed up via the Cloud and the hard drive goes into the safe. Only then do I go through all the photos. The nice part about the ColorSpace is functions as a hard drive AND as a file viewer with a nice sized LCD screen.

Computer/ Laptop: I bring my Macbook into the field. It is very light and has a nice sized screen. I opted for the Macbook over the Macbook-Air because the Macbook run Photoshop- always useful to have to examine photos if necessary or after they are backed-up.

Binoculars: As an avid bird watcher, I have a good sturdy pair. You’ll need them for the bands in the distance.  I have a simple pair of 8×42 Bushnell.

Sundries:

  • Snake bite kit, yes there are snakes out on the range. So far, no one has been bitten, just watch where you put your feet at all times. The Prairie Rattlesnake is generally docile but even the shyest snake will bite if it is stepped on. Some people wear snake-gaiters and I carry a pair.
  • Sunscreen- tons of the stuff
  • Cooling evaporative towel (Frog Tog)
  • Lens cleaning kits
  • Storm covers- some of the best photos are just before a storm but protect your camera at all times.
  • Food/water/cellphone with car charger

*Always let some know where you are, how long you plan to be there and when you expect to return.

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Mustang Walkabout 2016

MUSTANG WALKABOUT 2016: Packing List

Essential Items
Notification– Always let someone know where you are going and how long you plan to be there. Someone who is not with you in the Horse Management Area.  It is a big place, and it is easy to get turned around and cell service is not relaible.

Car with high clearance– High clearance is the most useful feature for your mustang-finding-vehicle but four wheel drive comes in handy and will offer you peace of mind. We will carpool at Sand Wash if necessary so let us know what vehicle you have/need.

SLR Digital Camera-If you can afford it, the best choice is a DSLR camera (digital single lens reflex)- Canon, Nikon, Olympus- whatever is most affordable, start with used if finances are an issue. B&H Camera and Video is an excellent resource and they have good on-line service.

Cell phone with car charger- this is an obvious one

Memory cards– I use smaller cards, about 32 MB and switch frequently. You can’t have enough cards. If I manage to get an amazing series of photos, I will remove that memory card, stash it some place safe and continue with a fresh card. This way you don’t ever run the risk of losing precious photos. Spend the extra money on the fast cards- each card has a speed- we use 90MB/second or faster.

Snacks-there is no food in Sand Wash so bring some of your own- salty foods are good, turkey/beef jerky, chips, fruit, sandwiches- all good choices. We can go eight hours without a ‘real meal’.

Water– Hydration is essential- Gatoraid, sports drinks, etc. Bring twice as much as you think you’ll need. A cooler with ice is very nice.

Map- You can get one in Maybell at the gas station- they have an excellent “hunter’s map” and they are very friendly. We will highlight where the horses are on your map. The BLM office in Craig, Colorado also has maps available if you’re near that location.

Other: Sunscreen, insect repellent, sturdy boots, hat, Frog Tog (or similar cooling cloth)


Other Useful, but not critical items

Photography vest– a slightly dorky but rather useful article of clothing. It has about 15 pockets of varying sizes. Make sure, if you don’t have a driver friend, put your car keys in a very safe place- zippered pockets are nice and secure. You don’t want to search through sagebrush for your cars keys. The nice thing about the vest is it holds extra lenses, water, monopod, memory cards and lens cloths without a backpack. Useful for hot summer days especially when you have to hoof-it for a mile…. (I’m wearing one in the photo on the right).

Telephoto lens– most cameras come with a 35-110 or 200 mm lens as a package deal. I love my 18-200mm. For mustangs, you will probably want to invest in a 100-400mm and IS is best. (Image Stabilized). You want the most portable lenses you can carry- literally.

Monopod/Tripod- this handy item comes as a single cane-like support for your camera. It has only one leg but if you find your images are blurry, try using a monopod or tripod.

Lens cloth/cleaner- It is quite dusty at Sand Wash

Waterproof cover for your camera

Email us for any questions: Meredith 

by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

The Mustang Management Contraceptive Primer

MUSTANG MANAGEMENT CONTRACEPTIVE PRIMER 

This is not a debate on which is the best method of controlling wild horse numbers. These are simply the facts. It is clear science is far from perfect but research and observation can serve to give us an idea, a general sense of something which can compel us to look for more answers and continue research, preferably as humanely and as compassionately as possible. This is also not a debate as to whether mustangs should be classified as a native species in North America, returned native species, indigenous or invasive. They are here, with limited resources, and they are our responsibility.

————————————————————————–

Porcine Zona Pellucida (PZP):  The compound PZP, which is short for Porcina Zona Pellucida, is derived from sow ovaries. When the pigs are slaughtered for the meat industry, the excess tissue not used for the food industry is either discarded or utilized for non-consumption purposes. Some tissue used for research and others for the preparation of drugs. Heparin is a potent anticoagulant given to almost every patient who has had surgery followed by an overnight stay in the hospital, to prevent the formation of blood clots. Heparin is derived from pig intestines. Insulin, given to diabetics, was originally made from cow, pig, and even whale pancreases. Currently there are still some available that contain animal products, although there are genetically modified human insulins and insulin analogs that are not animal based (http://iddt.org/about/gm-vs-animal-insulin).


Pesticide Classification: The FDA classifies PZP as a pesticide simply because they do not have a category for contraception. Pesticides control the numbers of a populations be it insect or mammal, and because they can be quite destructive, pesticides are deemed as negative chemical compounds. PZPdoes not have any direct effect on any of the plants or animals other than the inoculated mares.

How it works: PZP works by stimulating the immune system of a mare to produce antibodies which migrate through the horse’s body to an oocyte (egg). When the mare ovulates, the antibodies immediately surround the egg, making it impenetrable to sperm. The egg cannot be fertilized and there is no foal. The reproductive behavior remains relatively normal, the mare goes into estrus and is covered by a stallion but there is no resulting offspring <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Barber200118(Barber, Lee, Steffens, Ard, & Fayrer-Hosken, 2001)181817Barber, M. R.Lee, S. M.Steffens, W. L.Ard, M.Fayrer-Hosken, R. A.Immunolocalization of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephantsTheriogenologyTheriogenology1705-17175582001May0093-691XWOS:000168957100010<Go to ISI>://WOS:00016895710001010.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3<![endif]–>(Barber, Lee, Steffens, Ard, & Fayrer-Hosken, 2001)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

Risks: PZP is not without risks. The currently long acting PZP-22 can last approximately 22 months. PZP is based on the immune system of the mares and this can cause variation in the efficacy and duration of the contraceptive effect. As in humans utilizing long term injectable contraception (Depo-Provera), the mare’s return to fertility is quite variable <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Kirkpatrick200924(Kirkpatrick et al., 2009)242417Kirkpatrick, J. F.Rowan, A.Lamberski, N.Wallace, R.Frank, K.Lyda, R.The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlifeJournal of Reproductive ImmunologyJournal of Reproductive Immunology151-157831-22009Dec0165-0378WOS:000273024800028<Go to ISI>://WOS:00027302480002810.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257<![endif]–>(Kirkpatrick et al., 2009)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>. The reason PZP is not offered to humans is because the efficacy rate is not high enough.

“For contraceptive treatment to be an effective management tool, it usually needs to be reversible (Kirkpatrick & Turner 1991). A long term study of feral horses showed that PZP was reversible even when females were treated for several years (Kirkpatrick & Turner 2002). However some females appeared not to return to full fertility after long-term PZP treatment and similar side effects were seen with GNRH treatments in deer (e.g. Miller et al. 2000a). Consequently, most wildlife contraceptives are reversible, or have minimal impact after prolonged use.”  (Gray & Cameron, 2010).

Prolonged use has demonstrated that some mares will never return to fertility. Kirkpatrick, Liu, Turner, Naugle, and Keiper (1992)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–> found that three factors determine the return to normal reproductive function: the amount of PZP administered, the number of antibodies produced by the mare, and ovarian dysfunction. Earlier studies also demonstrated damage to ovaries although the PZP preparation was crude in the earlier stages of development <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Kirkpatrick199226(Kirkpatrick et al., 1992)262617Kirkpatrick, J. F.Liu, I. M. K.Turner, J. W.Naugle, R.Keiper, R.LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS)Journal of Reproduction and FertilityJournal of Reproduction and Fertility437-4449421992Mar0022-4251WOS:A1992HR77000018<Go to ISI>://WOS:A1992HR77000018<![endif]–>(Kirkpatrick et al., 1992)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

Abscesses at the injection sites have been reported but these are temporary, and heal without complications.

PZP and Tuberculosis: Finally, there were some rumours floating around social media that PZP can cause tuberculosis. Although this may sound like science-fiction or the nefarious work of people against keeping the horses wild, there is some truth. The original method of getting PZP into the animals involved piggy-backing the molecule on a carrier molecule or adjuvant. Adjuvants are not biologically active but their presence can trigger an immune response. It may result in a false positive antibody response for tuberculosis. The animal doesn’t have the disease, and many human vaccines work this way by stimulating the body to form antibodies to something not biologically active.  The original choice for the adjuvant was a mycobacterium- the mycobacteria family are known to cause tuberculosis and many other diseases. Because the PZP was attached to an inactive mycobacterium, in some animals it cause a false-positive tuberculosis antibody response. They changedthe adjuvant for the preparation of PZP so now there is no mycobacterium involved. Additionally, horses cannot contract or transmit tuberculosis <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE  ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA 3C456E644E6F74653E3C436974653E3C417574686F723E4C7964613C2F417574686F723E3C596561723E323030353C2F596561723E3C5265634E756D3E31313C2F5265634E756D3E3C446973706C6179546578743E284C7964612C2048616C6C2C2026616D703B204B69726B7061747269636B2C2032303035293C2F446973706C6179546578743E3C7265636F72643E3C7265632D6E756D6265723E31313C2F7265632D6E756D6265723E3C666F726569676E2D6B6579733E3C6B6579206170703D22454E222064622D69643D22653974397470647A367365737471657276747A766477643539767A35787A746430326174222074696D657374616D703D2231343531323530383832223E31313C2F6B65793E3C2F666F726569676E2D6B6579733E3C7265662D74797065206E616D653D224A6F75726E616C2041727469636C65223E31373C2F7265662D747970653E3C636F6E7472696275746F72733E3C617574686F72733E3C617574686F723E4C7964612C20522E204F2E3C2F617574686F723E3C617574686F723E48616C6C2C204A2E20522E3C2F617574686F723E3C617574686F723E4B69726B7061747269636B2C204A2E20462E3C2F617574686F723E3C2F617574686F72733E3C2F636F6E7472696275746F72733E3C617574682D616464726573733E536369656E636520616E6420436F6E736572766174696F6E2043656E7465722C203231303020536F757468205368696C6F6820526F61642C2042696C6C696E67732C204D6F6E74616E612035393130362C205553412E3C2F617574682D616464726573733E3C7469746C65733E3C7469746C653E4120636F6D70617269736F6E206F6620467265756E642661706F733B7320436F6D706C65746520616E6420467265756E642661706F733B73204D6F6469666965642041646A7576616E747320757365642077697468206120636F6E747261636570746976652076616363696E6520696E2077696C6420686F727365732028457175757320636162616C6C7573293C2F7469746C653E3C7365636F6E646172792D7469746C653E4A205A6F6F2057696C646C204D65643C2F7365636F6E646172792D7469746C653E3C616C742D7469746C653E4A6F75726E616C206F66207A6F6F20616E642077696C646C696665206D65646963696E65203A206F6666696369616C207075626C69636174696F6E206F662074686520416D65726963616E204173736F63696174696F6E206F66205A6F6F205665746572696E617269616E733C2F616C742D7469746C653E3C2F7469746C65733E3C706572696F646963616C3E3C66756C6C2D7469746C653E4A205A6F6F2057696C646C204D65643C2F66756C6C2D7469746C653E3C616262722D313E4A6F75726E616C206F66207A6F6F20616E642077696C646C696665206D65646963696E65203A206F6666696369616C207075626C69636174696F6E206F662074686520416D65726963616E204173736F63696174696F6E206F66205A6F6F205665746572696E617269616E733C2F616262722D313E3C2F706572696F646963616C3E3C616C742D706572696F646963616C3E3C66756C6C2D7469746C653E4A205A6F6F2057696C646C204D65643C2F66756C6C2D7469746C653E3C616262722D313E4A6F75726E616C206F66207A6F6F20616E642077696C646C696665206D65646963696E65203A206F6666696369616C207075626C69636174696F6E206F662074686520416D65726963616E204173736F63696174696F6E206F66205A6F6F205665746572696E617269616E733C2F616262722D313E3C2F616C742D706572696F646963616C3E3C70616765733E3631302D363C2F70616765733E3C766F6C756D653E33363C2F766F6C756D653E3C6E756D6265723E343C2F6E756D6265723E3C65646974696F6E3E323030372F30322F32333C2F65646974696F6E3E3C6B6579776F7264733E3C6B6579776F72643E416E696D616C733C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E416E7469626F647920466F726D6174696F6E3C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E436F6E74726163657074696F6E2C20496D6D756E6F6C6F6769632F2A7665746572696E6172793C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E4573747275732F6472756720656666656374733C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E46656D616C653C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E467265756E642661706F733B732041646A7576616E742F61646D696E697374726174696F6E2026616D703B20646F736167652F6164766572736520656666656374732F2A696D6D756E6F6C6F67793C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E486F727365732F696D6D756E6F6C6F67792F2A70687973696F6C6F67793C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E2A56616363696E65732C20436F6E747261636570746976653C2F6B6579776F72643E3C6B6579776F72643E5A6F6E612050656C6C75636964612F2A696D6D756E6F6C6F67793C2F6B6579776F72643E3C2F6B6579776F7264733E3C64617465733E3C796561723E323030353C2F796561723E3C7075622D64617465733E3C646174653E4465633C2F646174653E3C2F7075622D64617465733E3C2F64617465733E3C6973626E3E313034322D3732363020285072696E7429262378443B313034322D373236303C2F6973626E3E3C616363657373696F6E2D6E756D3E31373331323731373C2F616363657373696F6E2D6E756D3E3C75726C733E3C2F75726C733E3C656C656374726F6E69632D7265736F757263652D6E756D3E31302E313633382F30343130342E313C2F656C656374726F6E69632D7265736F757263652D6E756D3E3C72656D6F74652D64617461626173652D70726F76696465723E4E4C4D3C2F72656D6F74652D64617461626173652D70726F76696465723E3C6C616E67756167653E656E673C2F6C616E67756167653E3C2F7265636F72643E3C2F436974653E3C2F456E644E6F74653E<![endif]–>(Lyda, Hall, & Kirkpatrick, 2005)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.

GONACON: This method works by injecting mares with a synthetic (man-made) chemical compound called GonaCon. This compound acts against a hormone called gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). In the reproductive cycle of mammals, GnRH is produced by the anterior pituitary gland. This gland controls reproduction by stimulating the release of the follicle stimulating hormone and the luteinizing hormone (and others). ConaCon works by stopping the production of GnRH and subsequently the luteinizing hormone and without LH, there is no ovulation, no corpus luteum, and therefore, no egg/offspring <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Speroff201230(Speroff & Fritz, 2012)30306Speroff, L.Fritz, M. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility 8th2012New Yok Lippincott Williams & Wilkins<![endif]–>(Speroff & Fritz, 2012)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>. Like PZP, GonaCon can result in prolonged infertility (Ransom, 2014). The tables below represent one study each- these data are only reflecting the results one study and may not have generalisability to the entire population. The general consensus amongst zoos and researchers is that PZP is 90% effective when administered correctly.

In a study by <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Ransom201429Jason I. Ransom et al. (2014)292917Ransom, Jason I.Powers, Jenny G.Garbe, Heidi M.Oehler Sr, Michael W.Nett, Terry M.Baker, Dan L.Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraceptionApplied Animal Behaviour ScienceApplied Animal Behaviour Science81-92157Equus caballusFertility controlGonadotropin releasing hormoneSocial behaviorWild horseWildlife contraception20148//0168-1591http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016815911400135Xhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002<![endif]–>Jason I. Ransom et al. (2014)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>, the researchers found there were fewer behavioural differences in mares treated with GonaCon, compared to those treated with PZP. They modeled their GonaCon study after the PZP study and found fewer alterations in the wild mare’s behavior. GonaCon is still a recent addition to the world of wildlife contraception and has potential as a potential management tool for equids. It shows promise but the long-term data is still unavailable.  


GonaCon can be given to males because the GnRH stimulates testosterone production in males. However, studies of stags treated with GonaCon resulted in antler deformity and other negative consequences. “In conclusion, the GnRH vaccination in male rusa deer resulted in the increase in GnRH antibody titer, which negatively correlated with blood testosterone. The decrease in blood testosterone might be involved in the lower semen quality and poor antler development” (Phraluk, O. et al, 2015). There is potential for use in stallions but we need more research in this area.


Because GonaCon a works systemically, not targeting the reproductive tract as specifically as PZP, the potential for side effects increases. The closer to the intended target a medication or treatment is administered, the more effective, the lower the dose, and adverse drugs reaction are substantially decreased. The Global Library of Women’s Health states: “In non-reproductive tissues, GnRH has been reported to modulate neuronal migration, visual processing, digestive tract function, and immune T cell chemotaxis. Studies in endometrial, ovarian, and prostate tumor cell lines have implicated GnRH in mediating cell growth, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis.” (http://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Gonadotropin-releasing%2520Hormone%2520(GnRH)%2520and%2520the%2520GnRH%2520Receptor%2520(GnRHR)/item/284)
——————————————–
Table 1. (Represents data from one study)
Infertility over three-years with equine contraception (Kilian et al., 2006).
Infertility after one year
Infertility after two years
Infertility after three years
Spay- Vac PZP
100%
80%
80%
GonaCon
94%
60%
53%
Copper IUD
80%
29%*
14%*
*The assumption is the IUD’s had been expelled in the mare who became pregnant

Table 2. (Represents data from another study)

Foaling rates at three horse management areas after PZP treatment  (Ransom, J.,et al, 2011).
Foaling Rates
Type of contraception
Treated
Untreated
Little Book Cliffs
6.6%
60.1%
PZP in liquid form requires annual boosters
McCullough
31.7%
75%
PZP in pelleted form- designed to last two years
Pryor Mountain
17.7%
62.8%
PZP in liquid form requires annual boosters
————————————————————–
Any time we begin to tamper with Mother Nature- it places us at risk. Treating mares with immunocontraception and/or Gonacon can have negative consequences on the familial structures of a highly social animal. Treating mares with these two compounds can result in mare giving birth to foal during time of limited resources. A study determined that there are differences in parturition times for mare treated compared with mares that were not treated. Foals born during more normal times for wild horses have a higher survival rate. <!–[if supportFields]> ADDIN EN.CITE Ransom201331(J. I. Ransom, Hobbs, & Bruemmer, 2013)313117Ransom, J. I.Hobbs, N. T.Bruemmer, J.Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and ResourcesPlos OnePlos One812013Jan1932-6203WOS:000315211500043<Go to ISI>://WOS:000315211500043e5497210.1371/journal.pone.0054972<![endif]–>(J. I. Ransom, Hobbs, & Bruemmer, 2013)<!–[if supportFields]><![endif]–>.  

However, all negative consequences of injectable contraception pale in comparison to the disruption of the social structure during round-ups. Separation of mares from stallions and their offspring occurs during round-ups and culling. Family bands are broken up and the horses face the terrible loss of their freedom. A balance must be found and the benefits and the negative outcomes must be weighed. There is a chance a mare treated with the above methods, may never foal again- but that mare remains free. There is always the potential she may resume ovulation however, she is will not spend her life in a holding pen. A study by Turner, Liu, Flanagan, and Rutberg (2007) indicated one mare out of sixteen in the study, did not have a normal return to fertility. Is a chance of infertility worth the price of freedom?
————————————-

OVARECTOMY: This is removal of a mare’s ovaries. This method is irreversible, the mare will never breed again. Behaviorally, it reverts a mare to a non-breeding state. There is not a lot of data and/or research regarding this permanent method in the wild horse population which is why research proposals are being requested by government agencies The risks are the this surgical procedure are post-operative infection and possible abortion of a fetus if the mare is gravid at the time of the procedure.  Additionally there is the loss of that mare’s potential contribution to the genetic diversity of that herd management area.  This loss is not well defined and may vary based of the genetic variation in a herd management area. Mares should be monitored for three weeks post-operative (optimally), before being returned to the range to live out their lives. The upfront cost is high, but the end result is permanent. It has been proposed for mare over a certain age, selected by the currently proposed studies, as means to control the populations which would allow the mares to live free without foaling year after year (Speroff & Fritz, 2012, National Research Council, 2013).


CHEMICAL STERILIZATION/VASECTOMY/NEUTERING:  These methods, performed on stallions, are permanent means of limiting wild horse populations. In chemical sterilization, stallions have a solution injected into the testes which causes necrosis and eventual tissue death of the testes. It is painful and carries a high risk of infection but is very cost-effective (Zhanwei, 1989),  Orchiectomy (removal of testes: aka gelding/neutering) is another permanent method which removes the testes of a stallion. Like chemical sterilization, ‘gelding’ causes behavioral changes and the stallions become less aggressive, there is less fighting and they cannot reproduce. Vasectomy involves severing the vas deferens of a stallion so that the communication between the testes and the penis is removed. The sperm are not able to be passed through the urethra during copulation. Behavior remains the same because the testes are still present and producing testosterone. Infection rates are much lower in vasectomies, the procedure is less painful but it requires a delicate touch, it may not be 100% effective, and the horse must be anesthetized or sedated (Speroff & Fritz, 2012, National Research Council, 2013).

ROUND-UPS: This method involves gathering the horses by use of helicopters, men on horses, ATV, trucks, and bait trapping. The bait-trapping is the least likely to cause physical harm but none of these methods are without significant risks. Helicopter round-ups have the highest incidences of morbidity and mortality.  The horses are gathered, separated and either returned to the horse management area, or they are removed to a holding facility for potential adoption.

RESERVE DESIGN:  This method of mustang management has merit in a perfect world. The theory is to find a place for the horses to live. A place that has natural horse-predators (may prove to be difficult to find), natural barriers to prevent migration in/out of the area, and neighbours sympathetic to mustangs.  The area has to have sufficient food, water, shelter, and other necessities for survival year round. Funds for this preserve may be obtained through ‘eco-tourism’ and public education regarding the wild horses are included in this plan.  Reserve design is a wonderful idea but it does not have practical application. The land that would be needed is not available, at least not at this time, for the numbers necessary.  The monitoring of these herds and the management of these herds must be carried out as well and the necessary people to oversee each area. The goal of ‘reserve design’ is to be self-sufficient in which the wild horses achieve homoeostasis with regards to population growth. Because the predation is very low, and we cannot safely import predators, this will prove to be challenging. Incorporating natural predators to assist in controlling the wild horse population can have deleterious effects on the domestic population of horses and of livestock. Historically, once a predator begins to hunt within the domestic population, the end result usually has rather negative consequences for the predator.


SELF-REGULATION: This involves leaving the mustangs alone to establish population equilibrium without any interference. There is no scientific evidence that this methods works and history has shown us wild horses do not fare well with a hands-off approach. Unfortunately the resources the mustangs have within the management areas are limited and the horses will suffer in one way or another if left unmanaged. There are three factors that determine a population’s ability to grow. They are: available resources, predation, and disease. Many of the wild horses at Cold Creek starved to death or had to be humanely euthanized because resources became compromised.  The resources may be limited due to naturally occurring factors such as drought or fire, or they may face competition from livestock grazing on the same land. Regardless of the mechanism, reduced resources will cause competition, and result starvation or disease in the wild horse population. Occasionally a mountain lion will take a foal or an older/injured horse but cougars are not primary predators of the mustangs . Wolves generally do not live in the horse management areas with any regularity. Disease is a concern with any animal left in overcrowded situations. Chronic Wasting Disease is a disease that began in the mule deer population, and has spread to other cervids (herbivorous even-toed mammals in which the male carries antlers). The current deer populations are substantially larger than the available resources in the north-east United States, and this disease has now been identified in white-tailed deer of the Adirondack Mountains. Similar to Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE), or Mad Cow Disease, this disease is affecting all cervids, not just the deer (Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance, 2016).  If the populations of wild horses were left alone, they would increase to the point of starvation and disease. It would only be a matter of time before a disease mutated in that population and spread to the domestic horse population with devastating consequences.

DECLARING THE MUSTANG “ENDANGERED”: This method is to first declare the mustang a ‘native wild species’ and then have it declared endangered- which may prove difficult. The mustang is the same species as domestic horses. They fall within the same genera: Equus and species: caballus. They have no genetic markers or any other characteristic that differentiate them from their domestic counterparts.  There has been proposed theories that they behave differently but this was not enough for the United States Fish and Wildlife to declare mustangs as a separate subspecies.  The wild horses are identical genetically, physiologically, and behaviorally to the horses in your paddock.  There are currently 40-50,000 presumably wild horses in captivity at BLM holding facilities. There are an estimated 20-40,000 living wild on horse management areas, and several thousand more domesticated mustangs living with people. These numbers alone are not sufficient for endangered species status, or even threatened species if USFW was willing to grant them subspecies status. 

Proponents of making mustangs endangered believe that once they achieve the endangered species status, the mustangs would be granted the ultimate protection. However, advocacy groups would no longer have a say in their conservation; they would be managed by Fish and Wildlife. The now ‘endangered’ mustangs may be moved to locations to protect their numbers and they may very well lose their freedom if they were to ever to gain protected status. Our descendants would not be able to see these ‘endangered mustangs’ living free; they would only see them in zoos and protected reserves.


The belief that mustangs are a separate species or a separate animal from domestic horses is the first hurdle to overcome with this method. However, that has proven to be impossible. They are not separate; they are the same species just as a miniature horse and a Clydesdale are the same species. They are horses that have returned to the wild and been wildly successful at surviving and reproducing.   

“Managing them to extinction” is a catch-phrase often used to describe the situation of the wild horses. Mustangs will never become extinct because they aren’t recognized as a separate sub-species of the modern horse. However, there is a very good chance our children and their descendants will never see a free roaming mustang, and that would be the greatest tragedy of all. Regardless of their origin, regardless of their heritage, the mustangs are our responsibility. We need science to save the mustangs, scientists with the necessary credentials and expertise in wildlife management, ecology, contraceptive experts, and equine ethology all working to establish the best and most humane method of managing wild horses. Each management area is unique and each management area needs its own method of achieving appropriate and healthy numbers. The phrase “managing them to eradication” is more accurate, less sensational rhetoric and implies the same message without any controversy regarding the species/subspecies status of the wild mustangs.  


————————————————
Meredith Hudes-Lowder is a Nurse Practitioner in Women’s Health and an expert on contraception. Additionally, she has a bachelor’s of biology with a concentration in environmental education.  She will graduate in May 2016 with a Doctorate of Nursing Practice. She runs the largest exclusively wild horse photography site on Facebook with Karen McLain- they have almost half a million fans. Bruce Lowder was consulted for this blog. He is a wildlife expert, naturalist, and worked for U.S. Fish and Game.
References:

Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., Steffens, W. L., Ard, M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (2001). Immunolocalization of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephants. Theriogenology, 55(8), 1705-1717. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3
Gray, M. E., & Cameron, E. Z. (2010). Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence. Reproduction, 139(1), 45-55. doi:10.1530/rep-08-0456


Chronic Wasting Disease Alliance (2016). Webage URL http://www.cwd-info.org/index.php/fuseaction/about.main. Accessed 01/11/2016.

Killian, G., Diel, N., Miller, L., Rhyan, J, Thain, D. (2006). Long-Term Efficacy of Three Contraceptive Approaches for Population Control of Wild Horses. USDA National Wildlife Research Center – Staff Publications.

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Liu, I. M. K., Turner, J. W., Naugle, R., & Keiper, R. (1992). LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 94(2), 437-444.  Retrieved from ://WOS:A1992HR77000018
Kirkpatrick, J. F., Rowan, A., Lamberski, N., Wallace, R., Frank, K., & Lyda, R. (2009). The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlife. Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 83(1-2), 151-157. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257
Lyda, R. O., Hall, J. R., & Kirkpatrick, J. F. (2005). A comparison of Freund’s Complete and Freund’s Modified Adjuvants used with a contraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus). J Zoo Wildl Med, 36(4), 610-616. doi:10.1638/04104.1

National Research Council, (2013). Using Science to Improve the BLM Wild Horse and Burro Program: A Way Forward. PDF accessed 01/12/16: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/13511/using-science-to-improve-the-blm-wild-horse-and-burro-program.

Phraluk, Orasa; Wajjwalku, Worawidh; Siriaroonrat, Boripat; Booddee, Orawan; Thongtip, Nikorn. (2015). Effects of immunization against gonadotropin releasing hormone on reproductive functions in male rusa deer (Rusa timorensis). The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 45.1   (Mar 2015): 1,3-10.
Ransom, J.,   Roelle, J.,  Cade, B., Coates-Markle, L., Kane, A., Ransom, Jason I., Roelle, James E., Cade, Brian S.,Coates-Markle, L., & Kane, A. (2011) Foaling Rates in Feral Horses Treated With the Immunocontraceptive Porcine Zona Pellucida. WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN.
Ransom, J. I., Hobbs, N. T., & Bruemmer, J. (2013). Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and Resources. Plos One, 8(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054972
Ransom, J. I., Powers, J. G., Garbe, H. M., Oehler Sr, M. W., Nett, T. M., & Baker, D. L. (2014). Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraception. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 81-92. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002
Speroff, L., & Fritz, M. (2012). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility (8th ed.). New Yok: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Turner, J. W., Liu, I. K. M., Flanagan, D. R., & Rutberg, A. T. (2007). Immunocontraception in wild horses: One inoculation provides two years of infertility. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71(2), 662-667. doi:10.2193/2005-779

Zhanwei, S. (1989). Chemical castration of horses and mules by injecting testis with iodine tincture. Journal of Liaoning Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine.

—————————————————————————-

Other resources:

Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (1998). Staining patterns to the zona pellucida of the dog, cat, horse and elephant with porcine zona pellucida (pZP) antisera. Theriogenology, 49(1), 307-307. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(98)90660-4
Barber, M. R., Lee, S. M., Steffens, W. L., Ard, M., & Fayrer-Hosken, R. A. (2001). 

Immunolocatiom of zona pellucida antigens in the ovarian follicle of dogs, cats, horses and elephants. Theriogenology, 55(8), 1705-1717. doi:10.1016/s0093-691x(01)00514-3


Berger, J. (1983). Induced abortion and social factors in wild horses. Nature, 303(5912), 59-61.  Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/303059a0

Bowling, A. T., & Touchberry, R. W. (1990). Parentage of Great Basin Feral Horses. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 54(3), 424-429. doi:10.2307/3809652

Duncan, P. (1982). Foal killing by stallions. Applied Animal Ethology, 8(6), 567-570. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3762(82)90221-8
Feh, C. (1990). Long-term paternity data in relation to different aspects of rank for camargue stallions, Equus caballus. Animal Behaviour, 40(5), 995-996. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)81007-3

Feh, C., & Munkhtuya, B. (2008). Male infanticide and paternity analyses in a socially natural herd of Przewalski’s horses: sexual selection? Behav Processes, 78(3), 335-339. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2007.12.009

Gray, M. E. (2009). An infanticide attempt by a free-roaming feral stallion (Equus caballus). Biol Lett, 5(1), 23-25. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0571

Gray, M. E., & Cameron, E. Z. (2010). Does contraceptive treatment in wildlife result in side effects? A review of quantitative and anecdotal evidence. Reproduction, 139(1), 45-55. doi:10.1530/rep-08-0456
Gray, M. E., Thain, D. S., Cameron, E. Z., & Miller, L. A. (2010). Multi-year fertility reduction in free-roaming feral horses with single-injection immunocontraceptive formulations. Wildlife Research, 37(6), 475-481. doi:10.1071/wr09175
Jordana, J., Pares, P. M., & Sanchez, A. (1995). ANALYSIS OF GENETIC-RELATIONSHIPS IN HORSE BREEDS. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 15(7), 320-328. doi:10.1016/s0737-0806(06)81738-7
Kavar, T., & Dovc, P. (2008). Domestication of the horse: Genetic relationships between domestic and wild horses. Livestock Science, 116(1-3), 1-14. doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2008.03.002

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Liu, I. M. K., Turner, J. W., Naugle, R., & Keiper, R. (1992). LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF PORCINE ZONAE-PELLUCIDAE IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION ON OVARIAN-FUNCTION IN FERAL HORSES (EQUUS-CABALLUS). Journal of Reproduction and Fertility, 94(2), 437-444.  Retrieved from ://WOS:A1992HR77000018

Kirkpatrick, J. F., Rowan, A., Lamberski, N., Wallace, R., Frank, K., & Lyda, R. (2009). The practical side of immunocontraception: zona proteins and wildlife. Journal of Reproductive Immunology, 83(1-2), 151-157. doi:10.1016/j.jri.2009.06.257

Kirkpatrick, J. F., & Turner, A. (2002). Reversibility of action and safety during pregnancy of immunization against porcine zona pellucida in wild mares (Equus caballus). Reproduction (Cambridge, England) Supplement, 60, 197-202.  Retrieved from http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/12220160

Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Minot, E. O., & Stafford, K. J. (1999). Stallion harassment and the mating system of horses. Anim Behav, 58(2), 295-306. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1155

Linklater, W. L., Cameron, E. Z., Stafford, K. J., & Minot, E. O. (2013). Removal experiments indicate that subordinate stallions are not helpers. Behav Processes, 94, 1-4. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2013.02.005

Lyda, R. O., Hall, J. R., & Kirkpatrick, J. F. (2005). A comparison of Freund’s Complete and Freund’s Modified Adjuvants used with a contraceptive vaccine in wild horses (Equus caballus). J Zoo Wildl Med, 36(4), 610-616. doi:10.1638/04104.1

Madosky, J. M., Rubenstein, D. I., Howard, J. J., & Stuska, S. (2010). The effects of immunocontraception on harem fidelity in a feral horse (Equus caballus) population. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 128(1–4), 50-56. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.09.013

Mask, T. A., Schoenecker, K. A., Kane, A. J., Ransom, J. I., & Bruemmer, J. E. (2015). Serum antibody immunoreactivity to equine zona protein after SpayVac vaccination. Theriogenology, 84(2), 261-267. doi:10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.03.012

Massei, G., & Cowan, D. (2014). Fertility control to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts: a review. Wildlife Research, 41(1), 1-21. doi:10.1071/wr13141

Nuñez, C. M. V., Adelman, J. S., Mason, C., & Rubenstein, D. I. (2009). Immunocontraception decreases group fidelity in a feral horse population during the non-breeding season. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 117(1–2), 74-83. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.001

Pluhacek, J., & Bartos, L. (2000). Male infanticide in captive plains zebra, Equus burchelli. Anim Behav, 59(4), 689-694. doi:10.1006/anbe.1999.1371

Ransom, J. I., Hobbs, N. T., & Bruemmer, J. (2013). Contraception can Lead to Trophic Asynchrony between Birth Pulse and Resources. Plos One, 8(1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054972

Ransom, J. I., Powers, J. G., Garbe, H. M., Oehler Sr, M. W., Nett, T. M., & Baker, D. L. (2014). Behavior of feral horses in response to culling and GnRH immunocontraception. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 157, 81-92. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.05.002

Schulman, M. L., Botha, A. E., Muenscher, S. B., Annandale, C. H., Guthrie, A. J., & Bertschinger, H. J. (2013). Reversibility of the effects of GnRH-vaccination used to suppress reproductive function in mares. Equine Veterinary Journal, 45(1), 111-113. doi:10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00577.x

Speroff, L., & Fritz, M. (2012). Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility (8th ed.). New Yok: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Turner, J. W., Liu, I. K. M., Flanagan, D. R., & Rutberg, A. T. (2007). Immunocontraception in wild horses: One inoculation provides two years of infertility. Journal of Wildlife Management, 71(2), 662-667. doi:10.2193/2005-779



by Equus ferus Wild Horse Photography

Primitive Markings in Dun Horses

The Primitive Markings

 © Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography & Karen McLain Studio

Primitive markings refer to stripes and lines darker than the coat colour that appear on horses carrying the Dun trait (Dn+). The most common marking is a dorsal stripe also called a lineback. The line travels from the mane, down the back and into the tail. Many horses have a dorsal stripe but in duns, the stripe extends from the mane through the tail. There is some debate as to whether the Dun factor- the lightening of red and black on the body- is linked to a separate gene causing the primitive marking, or if they are on the same gene.

Dr. Sponenberg states that if the Dun factor and the primitive markings were located on separate genes, we would see far more horses with primitive markings who are not Duns and more Dun horses without primitive markings (Sponenberg, 2009). Neither of those situations commonly occur, so the traits are most likely located on the same gene. 

© Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography & Karen McLain Studio

Other makings are zebra stripes on the legs, shoulder or wither stripes- some extending up the neck. Cobwebbing- or facial markings are the rarest. It is extremely rare to find a Dun without a dorsal stripe and zebra stripes are usually present but may be so pale they are not detectable except under certain circumstances. 




© Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography & Karen McLain Studio

Guard hairs- or lighter hairs on either side of the mane may occur (see photo to the right). Horse Management Areas with a large Dun populations are Sand Wash Basin in Colorado, and Pryor Mountain in Montana, amongst others. There may be darker edges to the ears and mottling/striping on the chest or sides. The Dun factor lightens the body leaving the ‘points’ or lower legs, mane, and tail darker. The head is also left darker which can cause confusion when separating Duns from Roans. The Blue Roan in the photo on the right may have the Dun factor in addition to the Roan which makes identification even more challenging.


© Equus ferus- Wild Horse Photography & Karen McLain Studio

The primitive markings are found on some of the oldest horse breeds such as Sorraia, Icelandic horses, and Norwegian Fjords. They are also seen on Przewalski’s Horse. However, the Dun trait is also seen on more modern breeds such as the Quarter Horse, Spanish Horse breeds and European draft breeds (Stachurska, 1999). The presence of the Dun factor does not mean the horse is from an ancient lineage- the Dun trait is autosomal dominant. This means that if the parent is homozygous (DnDn) or heterozygous (Dndn)- they will have a dun coat and pass the dun trait on to 75% off their offspring making this inherited coat colour common in isolated populations.


Sponenberg, D. (1996). Equine color genetics. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Stachurska, A. (1999). Inheritance of primitive markings in horses. Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, 29-38.